psychology e-book

2010-07-25T15:17:00.000-07:00

Education After Dewey

This study re-examines John Dewey's philosophy of education, and asks how well it stands up today in view of developments in Continental European philosophy. Do Martin Heidegger's statements on the nature of thinking compel a re-examination of Dewey's view? Does Hans-Georg Gadamer's philosophy of experience advance beyond Dewey's experimental model? How does a Deweyan view of moral or political education look in light of Hannah Arendt's theory of judgment, or Paulo Freires' theory of dialogical education? Part One of this study looks at Dewey's conceptions of experience and thinking in connection with two of the most important figures in twentieth-century phenomenology and hermeneutics: Heidegger and Gadamer.

It also returns to an old distinction in the philosophy of education between progressivism and conservatism, in order to situate and clarify Dewey's position and to frame the argument of this book. Part Two applies this principled framework to the teaching of several disciplines of the human sciences: philosophy, religion, ethics, politics, history, and literature. These are discussed with reference to the writings of Friedrich Nietzsche, John Caputo, Hannah Arendt, Paulo Freire, Michel Foucault, and Paul Ricoeur.

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2009-10-20T21:14:00.000-07:00

50 Psychology Classics

By : Nicholas Brealey

Introduction
In a journey that spans 50 books, hundreds of ideas, and over a century in time, 50 Psychology Classics looks at some of the most intriguing questions relating to what motivates us, what makes us feel and act in certain ways, how our brains work, and how we create a sense of self. Deeper awareness in these areas can lead us to self-knowledge, a better understanding of human nature, improved relationships, and increased effectiveness—in short, to make a real difference to your life.

50 Psychology Classics explores writings from such iconic figures as Freud, Adler, Jung, Skinner, James, Piaget, and Pavlov, and also highlights the work of contemporary thinkers such as Gardner, Gilbert, Goleman, and Seligman. There is a commentary devoted to each book, revealing the key points and providing a context of the ideas, people, and movements surrounding it. The blend of old and new titles gives you an idea of writings that you should at least know about even if you are not going to read them, and newer, really practical titles that take account of the latest scientific findings.

The focus is on “psychology for nonpsychologists,” books everyone can read and be enlightened by, or that were expressly written for a general audience. In addition to psychologists, the list includes titles by neurologists, psychiatrists, biologists, communications experts, and journalists, not to mention a dockworker, an expert in violence, and a novelist. As the secrets of human behavior are too important to be defined by a single discipline or point of view, we need to hear from such an eclectic collection of voices.

The book does not focus primarily on psychiatry, although works by psychiatrists such as Oliver Sacks, Erik Erikson, R. D. Laing, and Viktor Frankl are included, plus some by famous therapists including Carl Rogers, Fritz Perls, and Milton Erickson. 50 Psychology Classics is less about fixes to problems than supplying general insights into why people think or act as they do.

Despite the inclusion of some titles relating to the unconscious mind, the emphasis is also not on depth psychology, or concepts of the psyche or soul. Some of the best popular writers in this area, including James Hillman (The Soul’s Code), Thomas Moore (Care of the Soul), Carol Pearson (The Hero Within), and Joseph Campbell (The Power of Myth), have been covered in 50 Self-Help Classics and 50 Spiritual Classics, which explore books on the more transformational and spiritual sides of psychology.

The list of 50 psychology classics does not claim to be definitive, just to range over some of the major names and writings. Every collection of this type will be to some extent idiosyncratic, and no claims are made to cover the various fields and subfields in psychology comprehensively. Here we are seeking basic insights into some of the most intriguing psychological questions and concepts, and a greater knowledge of human nature.

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2009-09-14T02:28:00.000-07:00

Foreign Exchange Trading with Support Vector Machines

By : Christian Ullrich, Detlef Seese and Stephan Chalup

Abstract.

This paper analyzes and examines the general ability of Support Vector Machine (SVM) models to correctly predict and trade daily EUR exchange rate directions. Seven models with varying kernel functions are considered. Each SVM model is benchmarked against traditional forecasting techniques in order to ascertain its potential value as out-of-sample forecasting and quantitative trading tool. It is found that hyperbolic SVMs perform well in terms of forecasting accuracy and trading results via a simulated strategy. This supports the idea that SVMs are promising learning systems for coping with nonlinear classiﬁcation tasks in the ﬁeld of ﬁnancial time series applications.

Introduction
Support Vector Machines (SVMs) have proven to be a principled and very powerful supervised learning system that since its introduction (Cortes and Vapnik (1995)) has outperformed many systems in a variety of applications, such as text categorization (Joachims (1998)), image processing (Quinlan et al. (2004)), and bioinformatic problems (Brown et al. (1999)). Subsequent applications in time series prediction (M¨uller et al. (1999)) indicate the potential that SVMs have with respect to economics and ﬁnance. In predicting Australian foreign exchange rates, Kamruzzaman and Sarker (2003b) showed that a moving average-trained SVM has advantages over an Artiﬁcial Neural Network (ANN) based model, which was shown to have advantages over ARIMA models (2003a). Furthermore, Kamruzzaman et al. (2003) had a closer look at SVM regression and investigated how it performs with diﬀerent standard kernel functions. It was found that Gaussian Radial Basis Function (RBF) and
polynomial kernels appear to be a better choice in forecasting the Australian foreign exchange market than linear or spline kernels. Although Gaussian kernels
are adequate measures of similarity when the representation dimension of the space remains small, they fail to reach their goal in high dimensional spaces (Francois et al. (2005)).We will examine the general ability of SVMs to correctly classify daily EUR/GBP, EUR/JPY and EUR/USD exchange rate directions. It is more useful for traders and risk managers to predict exchange rate ﬂuctuations than their levels. To predict that the level of the EUR/USD, for instance, is close to the level today is trivial. On the contrary, to determine if the market will rise or fall is much more complex and interesting. Since SVM performance mostly depends on choosing the right kernel, we empirically verify the use of customized p-Gaussians by comparing them with a
range of standard kernels. The remainder is organized as follows: Section 2 outlines the procedure for obtaining an explanatory input dataset. Section 3 formulates the SVM as applied to exchange rate forecasting and presents the kernels used. Section 4 describes the benchmarks and trading metrics used for model evaluation. Section 5 gives the empirical results. The conclusion, as well as brief directions for future research, are given in Section 6.

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2009-09-14T02:15:00.000-07:00

Analysis and approximation of performance bound
for two-observer bearings-only tracking

Ben-Lian Xu, Qing-Lan Chen, Zheng-Yi Wua, Zhi-Quan Wang

Abstract

This paper presents the analytic recursive formulas of Crame´r-Rao lower bound (CRLB) for the switching models system, in which the target moves either with a constant velocity or with a constant speed and a constant turn rate. For the case of two-observer bearings-only maneuvering target tracking, a reliable maneuver detection method is investigated and then utilized to approximate the theoretic CRLB. Finally, to demonstrate the agreement between the approximated CRLB using the proposed maneuver detection method and the theoretic one, a large number of Monte-Carlo runs under diﬀerent maneuvering scenarios are conducted. Correctness of the analytic recursive formulas of CRLB and eﬀectiveness of the proposed maneuver detection method are veriﬁed from these simulations.

1. Introduction
For a general nonlinear ﬁltering problem, the optimal recursive state estimator in the Bayesian sense needs the complete posterior density of the state. As is well known, such a problem has no analytic closed-form solution. As a consequence, the solution of the nonlinear ﬁltering is usually approximated by means of extended
Kalman ﬁlter, unscented Kalman ﬁlter [9], particle ﬁlter [16] and so on. In practical applications, many researchers usually attempt to derive the theoretically best achievable second-order error performance for nonlinear ﬁltering to evaluate these ﬁlters, and we call it Crame´r-Rao lower bound (CRLB).

The Crame´r-Rao lower bound, deﬁned as the inverse of the Fisher information matrix (FIM), represents an objective lower limit of cognizability of parameters in constant or random parameter estimation. It has been widely used in many cases, such as bearings-only tracking [13,20,21], ballistic target tracking [8] and so on. Due to its ability of predicting the best achievable performance, it is usually utilized as a benchmark to evaluate the performance of an estimation algorithm and can provide guidance to improve the experimental design as well. Therefore, the discussion on CRLB is always a hot topic in the ﬁeld of target motion analysis (TMA).

A complete history of the developments of the CRLB for target tracking would involve more than sixty publications (e.g., [3–7,10,12–15,17–19]), and its attention varies from single target to multiple targets, from constant parameter estimation to random parameter estimation, from clutter-free to clutter, etc. In many practical tracking scenarios, due to high frequency of maneuver occurrence, the corresponding discussion
on the CRLB seems necessary and imminent. However, few reports on the CRLB of maneuvering target tracking can be found so far, even so, most of them are based on such an assumption that the model history is already known [13]. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to investigate the performance bounds of the switching-models-based bearings-only maneuvering target tracking system, in which the target moves either with a constant velocity or with a constant speed and a constant turn rate. It is noted that, in bearing-only tracking, if a single observer is collecting angular measurements, the target state becomes observable only if the observer ‘‘outmaneuvers” the target, i.e., observer motion is one derivative higher than that of target and a component of this motion is perpendicular to the line of sight. However, for a two-observer bearings-only tracking system to be discussed in this paper, it is not the case, and the target is always observable only if the target does not move on the line connecting the two observers, thus the observability will not be addressed later.

This work takes inspiration mainly from Farina et al. [7], in which the detection probability of target was supposed to be less than unity. Thus we suppose in this paper that there is the possibility of target’s maneuver or non-maneuver at each sampling period. On the basis of such assumption, the recursive theoretic formulas
of CRLB for two-observer bearings-only maneuvering target are derived. Since the calculation of the theoretic CRLB relies on the exponentially growing number of maneuver/non-maneuver sequences, a reliable maneuver detector is developed to reduce the possible sequences to further approximate the theoretic CRLB.

The rest of this paper is arranged as follows. The target dynamics and measurement models for bearingsonly target tracking are formulated in Section 2. In Section 3, the recursive theoretic formulas of CRLB for two-observer bearings-only maneuvering target are derived, and moreover, a reliable maneuver detector for bearings-only tracking is developed and utilized to approximate the theoretic CRLB. Finally, performance evaluation and conclusions are given in Sections 4 and 5, respectively.

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2009-09-14T01:36:00.000-07:00

ON-LINE ADAPTATION OF PREDICTIVE CONTROLLERS

J. Duane Morningred, Duncan A. Mellichamp, and Dale E. Seborg

Department of Chemical and Nuclear Engineering
University of California
Santa Barbara, CA 93106

ABSTRACT

Although predictive control techniques such as Dynamic Matrix Control and Model Algorithmic Control have received much attention in recent years, systematic methods for on-line updating of the process models and predictive control laws raely have been rported. Such adaptation is desirable if the process conditions change significantly over a period of time. The same approach also could be used to generate a discrete convolution model for the initil controller design. In ftis paper, several altrative stategies for on-line aptation during closedloop opertion are evaluated and compared via simulations.

INTRODUCTION
Industrial process-control groups introduced the predictive control techniques of Dynamic Matrix Control (DMC) [1] and Model Algorithmic Control (MAC) [2,3], respectvely, nearly a decade ago. They were developed specifically for multipleinput, multiple-output (MIMO) control problems in which the process could be adequately described by linear dynamic models. These model-based techniques minimize predicted process deviations from the set point using quadratic performance indices. Thus, these methods were the first optimal controllers to be routinely used in the process industries. The evaluation and extension of these techniques spread quickly among academic circles as industry revived dying enthusiasm among researchers for studying and developing optimal controllers.

Since DMC and MAC were introduced, industrial and academic researchers have reported extensions and modifications of both control techniques. In addition, researchers have developed several new predictive controllers and have shown that they are robust under many circumstances. For example, Ogunnaike [4] gives a statistical interpretation of the robustness of DMC. Maurath et al [5] illustrate stability regions for a single-input, single-output (SISO) predictive controller. Garcia and Moari [6] show the stabilizing effect of filtering feedback errr for such controllers.

If the process characteristics change significantly, the predictive controller may need to be retuned or redesigned. This, naurly, leads one to consider adaptng the predictive controler on-line to accommodate the changing process conditions. In fact, one merely needs to estimate the process models on line to make many predictive controllers adaptive. The dearth of publicized industrial experiences extolling adaptive predictive controllers, though, suggests that implementation of these controllers may not be straightforward. Some of the pertinent questions that point to possible implementation problems are:
1. How does one decide if the current controller's performance is unsatisfactory?
2. How should a new process model and controller be obtined, if neded?
3. How should a good process model for the initial controller design be obtined?
This paper helps to answer these questions by presenting systematic methods for the on-line updating of the process models and control laws. The proposed strategies also can be used to develop the convolution model for the initial controler design. In the next section, existing predictive controller techniques are discussed briefly.

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2009-08-15T09:15:00.000-07:00

The Psychology Of Learning And Motivation

By : Brian H. Ross
VOLUME 43

What Is the Psychology of Concepts a Psychology of ?
There is a methodological pitfall masquerading as an advantage that accounts for some part of the problem I have described. In order to study concepts, all I have to do is to make up two sets of entities (which can be anything, although I will usually call them objects because that is usually what they are) and persuade subjects to give one response to one set and a diVerent response to the other set. The problem with this is that I can make up any arbitrary sets, use any procedure to try to get subjects to learn, and use anyresponse that is at all distinctive. Hull (1920),whowasfaced with the task of developing a methodology for studying concepts experimentally, listed a number of desiderata for studying concepts. The Desiderata included the use of distinct classes, each receiving diVerent responses. However, they also included constraints on the concepts themselves, namely that each concept should contain an element that is unique to it. This desideratum reflected Hull’s assumption about the structure of categories in the world, what has come to be known as the classical view of categories (Smith & Medin, 1981).

Let us imagine for a moment that Hull had been right about categories, that each category has a unique element or some set of defining features that determine category membership. What would we then think about the vast majority of modern experiments on concepts, which lack such defining features? These experiments might be interesting as studies of abstract learning, but they would simply not be about how people learn concepts. A study of how people learn nonlinearly separable categories might have some interest regarding the nature of memory and learning in general, but it would tell us little about how people learn real categories because
nonlinearly separable categories by definition do not have definitions (sic). Studies of family resemblance concepts (Rosch & Mervis, 1975), in which category members tend to share features but have no feature common to the whole category, would also not be telling us how people learn real categories.These studies would be uninformative because the requirements involved in learning a well-defined category are diVerent from those involved in learning family resemblance or NLS categories. Indeed, the study of logically defined concepts that was ushered in by Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin (1956) was essentially dropped when Rosch published her studies of the structure of natural categories (e.g., Rosch, 1973, 1975). The studies of concept attainment that Bruner et al. and many others carried out are now viewed as studies of a particular kind of reasoning or problem solving rather than studies of concept learning, precisely because we believe that real concepts are not like Bruner et al.’s concept.
In order to answer how people learn categories and form concepts, we cannot operate in a vacuum of knowledge about the real structure of categories. For Hull, it would have been pointless to study how people learn family resemblance categories because this could not tell you how people learn ‘‘real’’ categories. We are less certain now, perhaps, what the real categories are and therefore are less willing to reject any particular experiment as being irrelevant. But perhaps we have erred on the side of liberality and acceptingness. Perhaps some of the categories we have studied do not tell us about how people learn real categories, just as the studies of Bruner et al. do not tell us how people learn family resemblance categories.

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2009-08-15T08:52:00.000-07:00

A Quick Reference of More Than 300 Microsoft Word Tasks, Terms and Tricks

By : Stephen L. Nelson

WORD 2002
FROM A TO Z

Active document
The active document is the document shown in the active window.

Active document window
The active document window is the document window that shows the Word document you’re currently working on. If you tell Word to print, for example, Word prints the document shown in the active document window. If you enter text by typing on the keyboard, Word enters what you type into the active document window.

Word adds a button to the taskbar for each open document. By clicking a document’s taskbar button, you can switch to that document.

Alignment
You can align the text, tables, and pictures that make up a Word document so that the item you’re aligning rests against the left edge of the page, is centered horizontally on the page, or rests against the right edge of the page.

Aligning Text
To align text, first select the text. Then use the toolbar’s Align Left, Center, Align Right, or Justify buttons to align the text.
If you’re using Personalized menus and toolbars, these alignment buttons may not all appear. You can still change alignment though. Select the text, choose the FormatP aragraphs command, and click the Indents And Spacing tab. Use this tab’s Alignment drop-down list box to select the desired alignment.

Aligning T Tables
To align a table, right-click the table and then choose the Table Properties command from the shortcut menu. When Word displays the Table Properties dialog box, click the Table tab and then use its Alignment buttons—Left, Center, and Right—to align the table.

Aligning Pictures
To align a picture, right-click the picture and then choose the Format Picture command from the shortcut menu. When Word displays the Picture Properties dialog box, click the Layout tab and then use its Horizontal Alignment buttons to align the picture.

Aligning Other Graphic Objects
You align other graphic objects—drawn objects, autoshapes, and so on—in the same way that you align a picture. Right-click the object and choose the Format command from the shortcut menu. When Word displays the Formatting dialog box, click its Layout tab. Then use the Layout tab’s alignment buttons to make your changes.

Animating Characters
You can animate, or add motion, to the characters used in a Word document. The animation won’t show up in printed copies of the document, of course. But online versions of the document displayed by Word and other Office programs will show the animation.
To animate characters, select the text and then choose the Format Font command. When Word displays the Font dialog box, click the Text Effects tab. Then use its Animations list box to select the animation effect you want.

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2009-08-15T07:23:00.000-07:00

A Quick Reference of More Than 300 Microsoft PowerPoint Tasks, Terms, and Tricks

By : Stephen L. Nelson

INTRODUCTION
You should find PowerPoint 2002 From A to Z easy to use. You only need to know that the book organizes its information—key tasks and important terms—alphabetically in order to use the book. You’ll find it helpful, however, if you understand what this book assumes about your computer skills, what you should know about the PowerPoint program from the very start, and what editorial conventions this book uses. This short introduction provides this information.

What Y You ou Should Know About Windows
You don’t need to be computer expert to use either this book or Microsoft PowerPoint. Definitely not. But you want to be comfortable working with your computer and Microsoft Windows.
For example, you should know how to turn your computer on and off, how to start and stop programs, how to choose menu commands, and how to work with dialog boxes. This book, for the most part, doesn’t provide this Windows information.
If you need this Windows information, you need to take the Windows online tutorial, get a friend to give you a quick tutorial, or acquire another book on Windows.

TIPS
Any short book on Windows will tell you what you need to know, but if you’re a business user of Windows 2000 or Windows XP, you may want to look at the Effective Executive’s Guide to Windows 2000 or the Effective Executive’s Guide to Windows XP.
These books supply a tutorial on Windows geared for business professionals.

What Y You ou Should Know About PowerPoint
You don’t need to know anything about PowerPoint to use this book. But understanding from the very start how PowerPoint works and how the PowerPoint program window is laid out will help you immensely in your learning. Let me quickly provide this background information.

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2009-06-07T16:56:00.000-07:00

How To Develop Your Power of Concentration

Concentration Finds The Way
Everyone has two natures. One wants us to advance and the other wants to pull us back. The one that we cultivate and concentrate on decides what we are at the end. Both natures are trying to gain control.

The will alone decides the issue. A man by one supreme effort of the will may change his whole career and almost accomplish miracles. You may be that man. You can be if you Will to be, for Will can find a way or make one.

I could easily fill a book, of cases where men plodding along in a matter-of-fact way, were all at once aroused and as if awakening from a slumber they developed the possibilities within them and from that time on were different persons.

You alone can decide when the turning point will come.
It is a matter of choice whether we allow our diviner self to control us or whether we will be controlled by the brute within us. No man has to do anything he does not want to do. He is therefore the director of his life if he wills to be. What we are to do, is the result of our training. We are like putty, and can be completely controlled by our will power.

Habit is a matter of acquirement. You hear people say: "He comes by this or that naturally, a chip off the old block," meaning that he is only doing what his parents did. This is quite often the case, but there is no reason for it, for a person can break a habit just the moment he masters the "I will."

A man may have been a "good-for-nothing" all his life up to this very minute, but from this time on he begins to amount to something. Even old men have suddenly changed and accomplished wonders. "I lost my opportunity," says one. That may be true, but by sheer force of will, we can find a way to bring us another opportunity.

There is no truth in the saying that opportunity knocks at our door but once in a lifetime. The fact is, opportunity never seeks us; we must seek it. What usually turns out to be one man's opportunity, was another man's loss. In this day one man's brain is matched against another's.

It is often the quickness of brain action that determines the result. One man thinks "I will do it," but while he procrastinates the other goes ahead and does the work. They both have the same opportunity. The one will complain of his lost chance. But it should teach him a lesson, and it will, if he is seeking the path that leads to success.

Many persons read good books, but say they do not get much good out of them. They do not realize that all any book or any lesson course can do is to awaken them to their possibilities; to stimulate them to use their will power. You may teach a person from now until doom's day, but that person will only know what he learns himself. "You can lead him to the fountain, but you can't make him drink."

One of the most beneficial practices I know of is that of looking for the good in everyone and everything, for there is good in all things. We encourage a person by seeing his good qualities and we also help ourselves by looking for them. We gain their good wishes, a most valuable asset sometimes.

We get back what we give out.
The time comes when most all of us need encouragement; need buoying up. So form the habit of encouraging others, and you will find it a wonderful tonic for both those encouraged and yourself, for you will get back encouraging and uplifting thoughts.

Life furnishes us the opportunity to improve. But whether we do it or not depends upon how near we live up to what is expected of us. The first of each month, a person should sit down and examine the progress he has made. If he has not come up to "expectations" he should discover the reason, and by extra exertion measure up to what is demanded next time.

Every time that we fall behind what we planned to do, we lose just so much for that time is gone forever. We may find a reason for not doing it, but most excuses are poor substitutes for action. Most things are possible.

Ours may be a hard task, but the harder the task, the greater the reward. It is the difficult things that really develop us, anything that requires only a small effort, utilizes very few of our faculties, and yields a scanty harvest of achievement. So do not shrink from a hard task, for to accomplish one of these will often bring us more good than a dozen lesser triumphs.

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2009-06-07T16:03:00.000-07:00

Basic Mathematics for Economists

Over half of the students who enrol on economics degree courses have not studied mathematics beyond GCSE or an equivalent level. These include many mature students whose last encounter with algebra, or any other mathematics beyond basic arithmetic, is now a dim and distant memory. It is mainly for these students that this book is intended. It aims to develop their mathematical ability up to the level required for a general economics degree course (i.e. one not specializing in mathematical economics) or for a modular degree course in economics and related subjects, such as business studies. To achieve this aim it has several objectives.

First, it provides a revision of arithmetical and algebraic methods that students probably studied at school but have now largely forgotten. It is a misconception to assume that, just because a GCSE mathematics syllabus includes certain topics, students who passed examinations on that syllabus two or more years ago are all still familiar with the material. They usually require some revision exercises to jog their memories and to get into the habit of using the different mathematical techniques again. The ﬁrst few chapters are mainly devoted to this revision, set out where possible in the context of applications in economics.

Second, this book introduces mathematical techniques that will be new to most students through examples of their application to economic concepts. It also tries to get students tackling problems in economics using these techniques as soon as possible so that they can see how useful they are. Students are not required to work through unnecessary proofs, or wrestle with complicated special cases that they are unlikely ever to encounter again. For example, when covering the topic of calculus, some other textbooks require students to plough through abstract theoretical applications of the technique of differentiation to every conceivable type of function and special case before any mention of its uses in economics is made. In this book, however, we introduce the basic concept of differentiation followed
by examples of economic applications in Chapter 8. Further developments of the topic,
such as the second-order conditions for optimization, partial differentiation, and the rules for differentiation of composite functions, are then gradually brought in over the next few chapters, again in the context of economics application.

Third, this book tries to cover those mathematical techniques that will be relevant to students’ economics degree programmes. Most applications are in the ﬁeld of microeconomics, rather than macroeconomics, given the increased emphasis on business economics within many degree courses. In particular, Chapter 7 concentrates on a number of mathematical techniques that are relevant to ﬁnance and investment decision-making.

Given that most students now have access to computing facilities, ways of using a spreadsheet package to solve certain problems that are extremely difﬁcult or time-consuming to solve manually are also explained.

Although it starts at a gentle pace through fairly elementary material, so that the students who gave up mathematics some years ago because they thought that they could not cope with A-level maths are able to build up their conﬁdence, this is not a watered-down ‘mathematics without tears or effort’ type of textbook. As the book progresses the pace is increased and students are expected to put in a serious amount of time and effort to master the material. However, given the way in which this material is developed, it is hoped that students will be motivated to do so. Not everyone ﬁnds mathematics easy, but at least it helps if you can see the reason for having to study it.

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2009-06-07T15:29:00.000-07:00

THE SECRET - RAHASIA
Versi Bahasa Indonesia

By : Rhonda Byrne

Setahun yang lalu, hidup saya terasa runtuh. Saya bekerja sampai kelelahan, ayah tiba-tiba meninggal, dan hubungan dengan rekan-rekan kerja serta orang-orang yang saya cintai sedang kacau. Pada saat itu saya tidak tahu bahwa keputusasaan terberat saya kelak menjadi karunia terbesar.

Saya telah diberi kilasan sebuah Rahasia Besar—Rahasia Kehidupan. Kilasan ini datang melalui sebuah buku berusia seratus tahun, yang dihadiahkan putri saya, Hayley. Dan saya mulai melacak Rahasia ini melalui sejarah. Saya sangat terkejut menemukan orang-orang yang telah mengenal Rahasia ini. Mereka adalah orang-orang besar dalam sejarah: Plato, Shakespeare, Newton, Hugo, Beethoven, Lincoln, Emerson, Edison, dan Einstein.

Ini membuat saya bertanya, “Mengapa tidak setiap orang mengetahui Rahasia ini?” Hasrat yang menyala-nyala untuk membagikan Rahasia kepada dunia membakar diri saya, dan saya mulai mencari orang-orang yang masih hidup, yang mengenal Rahasia ini.

Satu per satu mereka mulai muncul. Saya menjadi seperti sebatang magnet. Ketika saya mulai mencari, seorang guru yang masih hidup dan seorang lagi yang lain tertarik kea rah saya. Ketika saya menemukan satu guru, ia akan mengaitkan saya ke guru berikutnya, dalam sebuah rantai yang sempurna. Jika saya berada di jalan yang salah,
akan muncul hal lain yang menarik perhatian saya. Pengalihan jalan itu memunculkan guru besar erikutnya. Jika saya “tidak sengaja” menekan mata rantai (link) yang salah
ketika menelusuri Internet, saya akan dijuruskan ke potongan informasi yang sangat penting. Dalam beberapa minggu yang singkat, saya telah melacak Rahasia ini sampai ke abad-abad yang lampau, dan saya telah menemukan praktisi masa kini dari Rahasia ini.

Sebuah visi ntuk membawa Rahasia ini ke dunia melalui sebuah film tercamkan di benak saya. Dan selama dua bulan berikutnya, tim saya bidang produksi film dan televisi telah mempelajari Rahasia ini. Setiap anggota tim wajib mengetahui Rahasia ini karena tanpa mengetahuinya, apa yang akan kami upayakan ini akan mustahil.

Kami tidak mempunyai satu guru tetap untuk film ini, tetapi kami mengenal Rahasia ini. Jadi, dengan keyakinan teguh saya terbang dari Australia ke Amerika Serikat, tempat sebagian besar guru ini tinggal. Tujuh minggu kemudian tim Rahasia telah memfilmkan lima puluh lima guru besar yang ada di Amerika Serikat, dengan durasi film lebih dari 120 jam. Pada setiap langkah, setiap nafas, kami menggunakan Rahasia untuk menciptakan film The Secret. Benar-benar, kami ini seperti magnet yang menarik segala sesuatu dan semua orang. Delapan bulan kemudian The Secret diluncurkan.

Ketika film ini merambah dunia, kisah-kisah keajaiban mulai membanjir masuk:
orang-orang menulis tentang penyembuhan dari nyeri, depresi, dan penyakit menahun;
berjalan untuk pertama kalinya setelah kecelakaan; bahkan pemulihan dari ranjang
kematian. Kami telah menerima ribuan kisah tentang Rahasia yang mendatangkan sejumlah besar uang dan cek yang tidak terduga. Orang-orang telah menggunakan Rahasia untuk mewujudkan rumah sempurnanya, pasangan hidup, mobil, pekerjaan, dan kenaikan jabatan; serta banyak kisah bisnis yang mengalami transformasi dalam beberapa hari setelah menerapkan Rahasia ini. Ada banyak kisah yang menghangatkan hati tentang hubungan yang sulit dengan anak-anak berubah menjadi hubungan yang harmonis.

Beberapa kisah luar biasa yang kami terima datang dari anak-anak yang menggunakan Rahasia ini untuk meraih keinginan mereka, termasuk perolehan niilai tinggi dan banyak teman. The Secret telah mengilhami para dokter membagikan pengetahuan tentang Rahasia kepada pasien mereka; universitas dan sekolah kepada para mahasiswa dan siswanya; klub-klub kesehatan kepada para kliennya; dan gereja-gereja dari berbagai sekte dan pusat-pusat spiritual kepada umat mereka. Terdapat pula pertemuan yang diselenggarakan di rumah-rumah di seluruh dunia, mereka membagi pengetahuan ini dengan keluarga dan orang-orang yang dicintainya. Rahasia ini telah digunakan untuk mendapat segala hal—mulai dari sebilah bulu khusus sampai sepuluh juta dolar. Semua ini terjadi dalam beberapa bulan setelah peluncuran filmnya.

Niat saya dalam menciptakan The Secret adalah menghadirkan kegembiraan bagi miliaran orang di dunia. Tim kami mengalami perwujudan niat itu seitap hari ketika kami menerima ribuan surat dari masyarakat di seluruh dunia, dari segala usia, segala ras, dan segala bangsa. Mereka mengungkapkan terima kasih atas kegembiraan yang telah
dihadirkan oleh The Secret. Tidak ada satu hal pun yang membuat Rahasia ini tidak dapat diterapkan. Terlepas dari siapa Anda atau di mana Anda berada, Rahasia dapat
memberikan apa pun yang Anda inginkan.

Dua puluh empat guru yang menakjubkan akan dikisahkan dalam buku ini. Katakata mereka telah difilmkan di berbagai tempat di Amerika Serikat dalam waktu yang berbeda, tetapi mereka berbicara dalam satu suara. Buku ini berisi kata-kata guru Rahasia, dan juga kisah-kisah ajaib yang terjadi. Saya juga membagikan semua jejak, kiat, dan jalan pintas yang telah saya pelajari, sehingga Anda dapat mewujudkan impian Anda.

Di sepanjang buku Anda akan melihat bahwa pada tempat-tempat tertentu saya menggunakan huruf besar untuk kata “ANDA”. Alasan saya melakukan hal ini adalah saya menginginkan Anda, pembaca, merasakan dan mengetahui bahwa saya telah menciptakan buku ini untuk Anda. Saya berbicara secara pribadi kepada Anda ketika saya mengucapkan Anda. Niat saya adalah agar Anda merasakan hubungan pribadi dengan halaman-halaman buku ini karena buku Rahasia ini diciptakan untuk ANDA.

Ketika Anda menjelajahi halaman-halamannya dan mempelajari Rahasia, Anda akan menyadari bagaimana Anda bisa mendapatkan atau melakukan segala sesuatu yang Anda inginkan. Anda akan menyadari siapa sesungguhnya diri Anda. Anda akan menyadari keagungan sejati yang sedang menanti Anda.

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2009-06-07T14:25:00.000-07:00

Authentic Happiness
Menciptakan Kebahagiaan dengan Psikologi Positif

Selama ini, pandangan yang dominan menganggap kebahagiaan adalah kondisi yang sangat personal, dan karenanya, sangat subjektif. Bila ini benar, jelas semua upaya membahas kebahagiaan secara ilmiah dan objektif adalah sia-sia.

Namun, benarkah demikian? Tidak adakah cara ilmiah untuk mengukur dan menumbuhkan kebahagiaan yang bisa dimanfaatkan semua orang? Anda akan kecewa bila mencoba mencari jawabannya dalam psikologi pada umumnya. Karena, yang berkuasa di sana adalah psikologi patogenisâ€”psikologi yang melulu membicarakan penyakit. Psikologi semacam ini dapat pula disebut psikologi negatif, karena berkutat pada sisi-negatif manusia. Paling banter, psikologi jenis ini hanya menawarkan penanggulangan masalah-masalah kejiwaan. Padahal, manusia tidak hanya sekadar butuh terbebas dari permasalahan. Manusia juga butuh mengisi kehidupannya dengan kebahagiaan. Adakah psikologi jenis lain yang menjawab harapan ini? Martin Seligman, seorang psikolog pakar studi optimisme, memelopori revolusi dalam bidang psikologi melalui gerakan Psikologi Positif. Berlawanan dengan psikologi negatif, sains baru ini mengarahkan perhatiannya pada kekuatan dan kebajikan manusia, mengembangkan potensi-potensi ini sehingga membuahkan kebahagiaan yang autentik dan berkelanjutan.

Dalam buku yang bergaya populer ini, Seligman memperkenalkan kepada Anda prinsip-prinsip dasar Psikologi Positif, ciri-ciri kebahagiaan yang autentik, dan faktor-faktor pendukungnya. Dengan metode-metode praktis yang disertakannya, Anda dapat segera menerapkan temuan-temuan terbaru dari sains kebahagiaan untuk mengukur dan menumbuhkembangkan kebahagiaan dalam hidup Anda. Siapa pun Anda, baik Anda yang meminati bidang psikologi maupun yang awam, buku ini akan mengubah pandangan hidup Anda: kebahagiaan adalah hak setiap manusia. Dengan demikian, buku ini menghadirkan sebuah masa depan yang cerah bagi kebahagiaan manusia.

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2009-06-07T13:47:00.000-07:00

Fearlessly Communicating and Talking with Confidence
By : Joshua Uebergang

An interesting characteristic you’ll notice in people who lack confidence is when they do talk just by listening you are able to tell they lack confidence. They’ll often talk quietly and mumble.

To many times people had to ask me to repeat what little things I did say because of my soft and unclear voice. When you’re asked to repeat yourself you develop frustration thinking “ah, why don’t they just listen?” but the problem lies in you and not them. Acknowledge that you’re responsible otherwise you’ll never solve your problem.

Here’s how I solved poor voice clarity and volume. I didn’t learn this from anywhere else. This is from pure experience. Once you learn you do talk softly or with an unclear voice and once you desire to solve the problem, whenever you talk do so with clarity and good volume. You may not do so successfully every time, but you must try.

Nothing revolutionary there.

The true tip is making 100% effort and no excuses when doing this. When you’re tired or unhappy you’ll want to revert back to your old ways but you must not if you want to improve. You must have zero tolerance for laziness and always put in your fullest effort to communicate confidently.

“You must have zero tolerance for laziness and
always put in your fullest effort to communicate
confidently.”

When you’re relentless and make every effort to talk confidently, you’re practicing good habits. When you practice good habits, the behavior is reinforced and you’re more likely to repeat the good habit. This rule is true for any habit whether good or bad. The communication learning process will rapidly increase if you make every effort to talk confidently and practice good habits.

When you let others overrule you, when you forgo your personal needs continuously, and when you have to repeat yourself because you mumbled all because of low confidence levels, you subconsciously condition yourself to talk less confidently. So when you talk less confidently others begin to overrule you more, you forgo more personal needs, and you lose MORE confidence! It becomes tougher. It’s a downhill spiral that can easily take you all the way to the bottom.

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2009-06-07T12:00:00.000-07:00

PERAN ORANG TUA DAN SEKOLAH DALAM MENDIDIK ANAK
Denny Setiawan, S.Pd.

Harapan terbesar orang tua adalah ingin memiliki anak yang soleh, sopan, pandai bergaul, pintar dan sukses , tetapi harapan besar ini jangan sampai menjadi tinggal harapan saja. Bagaimana orang tua untuk mewujudkan harapan tersebut, itulah yang paling penting.

Kedudukan dan fungsi suatu keluarga dalam kehidupan manusia sangatlah penting dan fundamental, keluarga pada hakekatnya merupakan wadah pembentukan masing-masing anggotanya, terutama anak-anak yang masih berada dalam bimbingan tanggung jawab orang tuanya.

Perkembangan anak pada umumnya meliputi keadaan fisik, emosional sosial dan intelektual. Bila kesemuanya berjalan secara baik maka dapat dikatakan bahwa anak
tersebut dalam keadaan sehat jiwanya. Dalam perkembangan jiwa terdapat periode-periode kritis yang berarti bahwa bila periode-periode ini tidak dapat dilalui dengan baik, maka akan timbul gejala-gejala yang menunjukan misalnya keterlambatan, ketegangan, kesulitan penyesuaian diri dan kepribadian yang terganggu. Lebih jauh lagi bahkan tugas sebagai makhluk sosial untuk mengadakan hubungan antar manusia yang memuaskan baik untuk diri sendiri maupun untuk orang di lingkungannya akan gagal sama sekali.

Peran orang tua dalam hal pendidikan anak sudah seharusnya berada pada urutan pertama, para orang tualah yang paling mengerti benar akan sifat-sifat baik dan buruk
anak-anaknya, apa saja yang mereka sukai dan apa saja yang mereka tidak sukai. Para
orang tua adalah yang pertama kali tahu bagaimana perubahan dan perkembangan karakter dan kepribadian anak-anaknya, hal-hal apa saja yang membuat anaknya malu dan hal-hal apa saja yang membuat anaknya takut. Para orang tualah yang nantinya akan menjadikan anak-anak mereka seorang yang memiliki kepribadian baik ataukah buruk.

Anak-anak pada masa peralihan lebih banyak membutuhkan perhatian dan kasih sayang,
maka para orang tua tidak dapat menyerahkan kepercayaan seluruhnya kepada guru di
sekolah, artinya orang tua harus banyak berkomunikasi dengan gurunya disekolah begitu
juga sebaliknya, hal penting dalam pendidikan adalah mendidik jiwa anak. Jiwa yang
masih rapuh dan labil, kurangnya perhatian dan kasih sayang orang tua dapat mengakibatkan pengaruh lebih buruk lagi bagi jiwa anak. Banyaknya tindakan kriminal yang dilakukan generasi muda saat ini tidak terlepas dari kelengahan bahkan ketidakpedulian para orang tua dalam mendidik anak-anaknya.

Orang tua dan sekolah merupakan dua unsur yang saling berkaitan dan memiliki
keterkaitan yang kuat satu sama lain. Terlepas dari beragamnya asumsi masyarakat,
ungkapan “buah tak akan pernah jauh jatuh dari pohonnya” adalah sebuah gambaran bahwa betapa kuatnya pengaruh orang tua terhadap perkembangan anaknya.

Supaya orang tua dan sekolah tidak salah dalam mendidik anak, oleh karena itu harus
terjalin kerjasama yang baik diantara kedua belah pihak. Orang tua mendidik anaknya di rumah, dan di sekolah untuk mendidik anak diserahkan kepada pihak sekolah atau guru, agar berjalan dengan baik kerja sama diantara orang tua dan sekolah maka harus ada dalam suatu rel yang sama supaya bisa seiring seirama dalam memperlakukan anak, baik di rumah ataupun di sekolah, sesuai dengan kesepahaman yang telah disepakati oleh kedua belah pihak dalam memperlakukan anak. Kalau saja dalam mendidik anak
berdasarkan kemauan salah satu pihak saja misalnya pihak keluarga saja taupun pihak
sekolah saja yang mendidik anak, hal ini berdasarkan beberapa pengalaman tidak akan
berjalan dengan baik atau dengan kata lain usaha yang dilakukan oleh orang tua atau
sekolah akan mentah lagi-mentah lagi karena ada dua rel yang harus dilalui oleh anak dan akibatnya si anak menjadi pusing mana yang harus diturut, bahkan lebih jauhnya lagi dikhawatirkan akan membentuk anak berkarakter ganda.

Memang pada kenyataannya tidak mudah untuk melaksanakan kesepahaman tersebut,
tetapi kalau kita berlandaskan karena rasa cinta kita kepada anak tentunya apapun akan kita lakukan, karena rasa cinta dapat mengubah pahit menjadi manis, debu beralih emas, keruh menjadi bening, sakit menjadi sembuh, penjara menjadi telaga, derita menjadi nikmat dan kemarahan menjadi rahmat. Kalau hal ini sudah dimiliki oleh kedua belah pihak, hal ini merupakan modal besar dalam mendidik anak.

Setiap kejadian yang terjadi, baik di rumah ataupun di sekolah hendaklah dicatat
dengan baik oleh kedua belah pihak sehingga ketika ada hal yang janggal pada anak, hal ini bisa dijadikan bahan untuk mengevaluasi sejauhmana perubahan-perubahan yang
dialami oleh anak, baik sifat yang jeleknya ataupun sifat yang bagusnya, sehingga
didalam penentuan langkah berikutnya bisa berkaca dari catatn-catatan yang telah dibuat oleh kedua belah pihak.

Setiap ada sesuatu hal yang dirasakan janggal pada diri anak baik di rumah ataupun di sekolah, baik orang tua ataupun guru harus sesegera mungkin untuk menanganinya dengan cara saling menginformasikan diantara orang tua dan guru, mungkin lebih lanjutnya mendiskusikannya supaya bisa lebih cepat tertangani masalah yang dihadapai oleh anak dan tidak berlarut-larut. Oleh karena itu seperti apa yang tertulis di atas bahwa orang tua dan sekolah merupakan satu kesatuan yang utuh di dalam mendidik anak, agar apa yang dicita-citakan oleh orang tua atau sekolah dapat tercapai, maka harus ada kekonsistenan dari kedua belah pihak dalam melaksanakan programprogram yang telah disepakati oleh kedua belah pihak.

2009-05-31T22:44:00.000-07:00

Adobe Photoshop CS4 Bible

Adobe Photoshop, or simply Photoshop, is a graphics editing program (also known as a DPP, Desktop Publishing Program) developed and published by Adobe Systems. It is the current and primary market leader for commercial bitmap and image manipulation, and is the flagship product of Adobe Systems. It has been described as "an industry standard for graphics professionals" and was one of the early "killer applications" on the PC.

Adobe's 2005 "Creative Suite" rebranding led to Adobe Photoshop 8's renaming to Adobe Photoshop CS. Thus, Adobe Photoshop CS4 is the 11th major release of Adobe Photoshop. The CS rebranding also resulted in Adobe offering numerous software packages containing multiple Adobe programs for a reduced price. Adobe Photoshop is included in most of Adobe's Creative Suite offerings.

Photoshop's popularity, combined with its high retail price, makes Photoshop's piracy rate relatively high. Adobe countered by including SafeCast DRM starting with Adobe Photoshop CS.

Development

Early history

In 1987, Thomas Knoll, a PhD student at the University of Michigan, began writing a program on his Macintosh Plus to display grayscale images on a monochrome display. This program, called Display, caught the attention of his brother John Knoll, an Industrial Light & Magic employee, who recommended Thomas turn it into a full-fledged image editing program. Thomas took a six month break from his studies in 1988 to collaborate with his brother on the program, which had been renamed ImagePro. Later that year, Thomas renamed his program Photoshop and worked out a short-term deal with scanner manufacturer Barneyscan to distribute copies of the program with a slide scanner; a "total of about 200 copies of Photoshop were shipped" this way.

During this time, John traveled to Silicon Valley and gave a demonstration of the program to engineers at Apple Computer Inc. and Russell Brown, art director at Adobe. Both showings were successful, and Adobe decided to purchase the license to distribute in September 1988. While John worked on plug-ins in California, Thomas remained in Ann Arbor writing program code. Photoshop 1.0 was released in 1990 for Macintosh exclusively.

Features

Photoshop has strong ties with other Adobe software for media editing, animation, and authoring. Files in Photoshop's native format, .PSD, can be exported to and from Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Premiere Pro, After Effects, and Adobe Encore to make professional standard DVDs and provide non-linear editing and special effects services, such as backgrounds, textures, and so on, for television, film, and the Web. For example, Photoshop CS broadly supports making menus and buttons for DVDs. For .PSD files exported as a menu or button, it only needs to have layers, nested in layer sets with a cuing format, and Adobe Encore DVD reads them as buttons or menus. Photoshop is a pixel-based image editor, unlike Adobe Illustrator, which is a vector-based image editor.

Photoshop can utilize the color models RGB, lab, CMYK, grayscale, binary bitmap, and duotone. Photoshop has the ability to read and write raster and vector image formats such as .EPS, .PNG, .GIF, .JPEG, and Fireworks. It also has several native file formats:
• The .PSD (Photoshop Document) format stores an image with support for most imaging
options available in Photoshop. These include layers with masks, color spaces, ICC
profiles, transparency, text, alpha channels and spot colors, clipping paths, and
duotone settings. This is in contrast to many other file
formats (e.g. .EPS or .GIF) that restrict content to provide streamlined,
predictable functionality. Photoshop's popularity means that the .PSD format is
widely used, and it is supported to some extent by most competing software.
• The .PSB (Large Document Format) format is a newer version of .PSD designed for
files over 2 gigabytes.
• The .PDD (PhotoDeluxe Document) format is a version of .PSD that only supports the
features found in the discontinued PhotoDeluxe software.

CS4

Photoshop CS4 features additions such as the ability to paint directly on 3D models, wrap 2D images around 3D shapes, convert gradient maps to 3D objects, add depth to layers and text, get print-quality output with the new ray-tracing rendering engine, and enjoy exporting to supported common 3D formats; the new Adjustment and Mask Panels; Content-aware scaling (also known as seam carving); Fluid Canvas Rotation and File display options. On 30 April, Adobe released Photoshop CS4 Extended, which includes all the same features of Adobe Photoshop CS4 with the addition of capabilities for scientific imaging, 3D, and high end film and video users. The successor to Photoshop CS3, Photoshop CS4, is the first 64-bit Photoshop on consumer computers.

Plugins
Main article: Photoshop plugin

Photoshop functionality can be extended by add-on programs called Photoshop plugins which act like mini-editors that modify the image. The most common type are filter plugins that provide various image effects. They are located in the 'Filter' menu.

Trademark

Adobe discourages use of "Photoshop" as a verb, as in using photoshopping to refer to photo editing, to prevent its trademark from becoming a genericized trademark. Nevertheless, photoshop is commonly used as a verb. Also commonly shortened to "shopped," "chopped," or "shooped," these terms have become the modern replacement of the term "airbrushed" when used to describe photo retouching in general. (Prior to digital photography, airbrushes were used to apply pigments to photographic negatives to enhance or obscure detail.)

Consumer market

While Photoshop is the industry standard image editing program for professional raster graphics and other digital art, its relatively high suggested retail price has led to a number of competing graphics tools, such as GIMP and Paint.NET, being made available at lower prices or as freeware for the amateur market. To compete in this market, and to counter unusually high rates of piracy of its high end products, the company introduced a consumer-oriented version of Photoshop as Adobe Photoshop Elements. A more user-friendly interface and new tools such as the "red-eye" reduction brush were aimed firmly at the more casual image editor. Many professional features were omitted. Removing CMYK functionality, for example, made Elements unsuitable for commercial prepress work.

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2009-05-31T21:31:00.000-07:00

How To Sleep Less and Have More Energy Than You Ever Had Before Part: 1
Is it possible to sleep for 4-5 hours and feel more rested, more alert, and more energized than you did when you slept for 8 or 9 hours (or more)?

Yes it is! While this e-book may be short, the information in it is extremely owerful, do not underestimate it. This is state of the art optimum life performance information, which may shatter some of your old beliefs about sleep, and give you many learnings and understandings that you will be able to use to revolutionize your life. If you follow the information in this short e-book you will be able to:

1) Reduce your sleeping time.
2) Increase the Quality of your Sleep
3) Gain more energy than you ever had before.
4) Eliminate all feelings of drowsiness / inability to concentrate during the day.
5) Reduce your Daily Stress Levels

Just imagine what radical changes you could create, and what things you could accomplish in your life if you were able to sleep just half as much as you do now? Time is the most precious commodity we have in our lives! Or what you could do if you slept the same amount of time you do right now, but the sleep you got was more energizing and fulfilling than ever before?

The Popular Myth about Sleeping

Contrary to popular belief, you do not need 8 hours of sleep to function properly
during the day. There's a crazy media hype out recently telling people that America
is sleep deprived, and that we should all get 8 hours of sleep, blah blah blah. This is absolute non-sense, and any sleep expert would agree.

There are many people in the world today that perform extraordinary physically and
mentally demanding tasks and sleep for only 4 to 6 hours per night. Are these people
living zombies? Or did they somehow, consciously, or un-consciously tap into a hidden fountain of energy, a system that lets them perform this way?

A good example of a person like this is someone in a trans-atlantic yacht racing crew. The crew takes shifts being at the helm and on deck, and has to fight vigorous
weather, poor eating conditions, continuous motion, and drastic temperature changes, for up to 3 months! At this time each crew member sleeps about 4-5 hours per shift, and has no trouble performing the highly mentally and physically demanding tasks of sailing a yacht, fighting 30 foot waves, adjusting sails, and concentrating on keeping the boat on course.

There are also many other individuals in the world who don't sail yachts or perform
outrageously physically demanding tasks, yet they also sleep very little. Regardless
of their ”sleep deprivation”, they're always up beat, energetic, and full of life. Were these people just born with this ability, or is it something they're doing on a conscious/subconscious level?

Recent “Eye Opening” Discoveries

The longest recorded times that human beings have gone without sleep have been:
- Randy Gardner in 1965, Randy went without sleep for 11 days (That’s 264 hours!).
- In 1980, Robert McDonald of California stayed awake for a record 18 days 21
hours and 40 minutes. (453 hours)In both experiments, the subjects only experienced drowsiness and trouble with concentrating. This dispelled the popular myth that sleep deprivation will make you go crazy.

In another experiment, a 6 year study done by the University of California, completed
in 2002, revealed that people who slept less than 8 hours actually lived longer! Up
until this experiment (which involved 1.1 million participants), there were many conflicting beliefs about whether sleeping less was more health beneficial. Many would argue that sleeping more was actually more beneficial. Both sides of the argument had experimental data to prove their theories. However, none of the previous experiments were carried out with such a large group of people over this
long of a period of time. Many people die due to other circumstances, which have
nothing to do with how long they sleep.

How Much Sleep Do You Really Need?

This is the first belief about sleep you will consciously dispel in this e-book. The
Questions you should be asking yourself instead are really:

“What Actions can I take to raise the QUALITY of My Sleep?”
“How long does Quality Sleep Take for Me?”
“If I increase the Quality of my Sleep - Will it be possible to gain more energy, enough to reduce my sleeping time and do all the extra things I want to do in life?”

There are people who get an average of 8 to 10 hours of sleep, and always feel tired,
drowsy, low on energy, and complain about “poor sleep”, or “sleep deprivation”, and
try to compensate by sleeping even longer! In reality, they are sleeping TOO MUCH,
and decreasing the “quality” of their sleep as well as their energy levels. This
happens because there is an underlying energy and sleep mechanism in their body that they're not even aware of.

You see, it is not a question of Quantity, but rather Quality :) This is the most
important aspect about sleep you should grasp, and throughout this powerful e-book,
we'll be exploring the secrets of this little known understanding in detail.

The Mystery of Quality Sleep

You hear people saying this so often these days - but you probably haven't thought
of it up until now. You've probably heard someone say this to you, or perhaps you've even used these lines yourself in your life:

“I just need to get a good night's rest...”
“A Good night's rest keeps the sickness away...”
“Get some quality sleep, you'll feel better...”

But what on Earth is quality sleep?

Is it some mysterious force that just comes and attacks us in the middle of the night
that we have no control over? Most people have very limited knowledge and beliefs
about what sleep is. Often sleep just means “sleep”, and nothing more, and we don't
pay much attention as to how it affects our health.

Until the 20th century, it was believed that our minds completely turned off during
sleep. Recent scientific discovery has un-covered something completely different.
What you'll discover in this e-book is that once you sleep, your mind enters a state
so fascinating and rich with structure that it makes being awake look boring! When
we're sleeping, our minds are more active than they are when we're awake - which
you're about to learn. Knowing this may lead you to asking yourself the question:

“If our minds are so active during our sleep, perhaps my sleep has a greater effect
on my body, and my health, than I previously thought?”

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2009-05-30T08:40:00.000-07:00

TEACHING PSYCHOLOGY TO JURISTS:
Initiatives and Reactions Prior to World War I

Annette Mu¨lberger
Universitat Auto`noma de Barcelona

This article deals with the kind of psychology suggested for jurists that was thought
to be necessary training for their work. An analysis of the content of two textbooks
by Otto Lipmann and Karl Marbe reveals that such teaching activity involves two
different levels of historical analysis. On the one hand, it relates to experimental
research done by psychologists on law-related issues; on the other, it concerns the
professional experience psychologists accumulated by acting as expert witnesses in
court. The paper investigates how psychologists presented psychology to jurists,
which methods and theories they suggested as being essential for juristic training
and professional performance, and whether jurists appreciated these materials and
efforts. These inquiries are embedded in the debate on the history of criminal
psychology, taking into account the European, particularly the German, context. The
author shows how speciﬁc historical developments led to an increased exchange
between experimental psychology and criminal law during the ﬁrst decades of the
20th century.

Keywords: criminal psychology, textbooks, Lipmann, Marbe, forensic psychology

In 1908, German psychologist Otto Lipmann welcomed “the fact that jurists,
particularly criminalists, have increasingly begun to count psychology among the
auxiliary disciplines of law” (Lipmann, 1908, p. 1; all translations are mine).

What interest did jurists have in psychology and in introducing training in
psychology into their curriculum? Was it part of a general trend or attitude toward
psychology at the time? What sort of psychology did they have in mind? What did
they expect from psychological expertise, and were psychologists able to meet
those expectations? I address these questions in the present article.

A long tradition links psychology to law. Already toward the end of the 18th
century, Karl Von Eckardtshausen had declared the necessity of psychological
knowledge for the task of judging crimes, and Johann Christian Gottlieb Schauman
proposed ideas for a criminal psychology (Sieverts & Schneider, 1977).
Although initially philosophers were interested in the ﬁeld and Kant argued that
they should be the ones to deal with the psychological problems involved,
criminal psychology became a ﬁeld of expertise in medicine (psychiatry).

By the close of the 19th century, newly formed scientiﬁc psychology had developed, reviving in turn philosophers’ claim to the ﬁeld: philosophers with a specialization in psychology. This article cannot cover the entire story, so I concentrate on the period when nascent experimental psychology and criminal law began to converge at the turn of the century and lasting until the outbreak of the First World War, focusing on developments in Europe, mainly Germany, at that time.

The convergence of law and scientiﬁc psychology that occurred toward the end of the 19th century and into the early 20th century was clearly induced by a relatively small number of scholars on both sides. I deal with some of them, such as psychologists Lipmann, Marbe, and Stern, and jurists Von Liszt, Liepmann, and Reichel. By contextualizing the initiatives taken on both sides, I illuminate the kind of orientation they broadly represent in each of the ﬁelds. The proposals these professionals made were not generally greeted without critique. History is always complex; several opinions vie simultaneously to inﬂuence public opinion. Thus, it is important also to consider voices raised against the initiatives and projects launched by these scholars if we are to fully understand the discussion that took place.

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2009-05-30T07:57:00.000-07:00

HANDWRITING
SUCCESS SECRETS

BY BART A. BAGGETT

This publication is an excerpt of
Bart Baggett’s latest 456 page book:

Success Secrets of the Rich and Happy
Happiness is a Choice, Wealth is a decision
How to design your life with financial
and emotional abundance.

Written by Bart A. Baggett

Empresse´ Publishing
www.bartbaggett.com

INTRODUCTION
YOUR INVITATION TO GREATNESS

What do you really want? Seriously, take a moment and think about what specifically would make your life absolutely wonderful! What would make you leap out of bed early everyday with jubilance and anticipation equal to a six-year-old on Christmas morning? What are your passions? Is there anything you love to do frequently
just because it’s fun? What if … you have the power within your own mind to create the things you want most in life? What would you create for yourself?

Well, I’m here to tell you that you do have the power. I’m talking mega brain power. You have the luxury of having an amazing mind that is essentially a "creative machine." Besides keeping your heart beating and lungs moving, your brain is a programmable machine. In fact, for those of us who learn how to tap into its
unlimited potential, our brain can be a powerful "manifesting machine." Everyday your brain continues to manifest into your reality whatever it gets programmed to manifest. Sometimes what you want and sometimes what you don’t want. Wouldn’t you like to be able to create only what you want in life: Your highest choices?
Well my friend, this is your lucky day! This book reveals a wealth of "Success Secrets" I have learned from numerous rich and happy people. You will naturally learn how you can de-program ineffective mental programs and "design" new mental programs that get the outcomes you really want. This book puts you in complete control of your own sub-conscious mind. How about that?

Most people do not really know what they want. They are not sure of their destiny and not clear on what will satisfy them at the deepest levels.

Most people can write down a list of the things they don't want in life. Do you have such a list? (Struggle, arguments, an angry boss, disease, screaming kids, mean people, etc.) This list can be useful, but it doesn't program your brain to attract what you want. In fact, the more you focus on what you don’t want, the more you
are programming your brain to bring more of it into your world. This is an example of an ineffective internal program. In this book, you will learn how to stop running negative programs and start running positive ones that attract what you really want. First, you have to write the new program. I’ll show you how. Here is the first step.

I ask you again, what do you want? Here is a game. Please play along.

Imagine a MAGICAL WIZARD is standing in front of you right now. He is wearing a long silver robe, a pointy hat and holding his magic wand. He says, "I am your own personal wizard. When I wave this magic wand, instantly your deepest desire will create into reality. I have no limitations - just speak it and it will be manifested."

So tell me, what do you want? Would it be a bag full of cash, a paid college education for your kids, a life of champagne and caviar, lose four dress sizes, or would it be a better golf swing, a million dollars, or a new car … you name it.

Now, take a moment and pretend you did have a wizard, and you could create a life with no limitations. What would that life look like? It has been my experience, once I learned how to really run my mind, that I could work it as if I truly had a wizard inside me ... waiting for the instructions in a way he could understand them. So I invite you to imagine that you have a wizard inside you,

too, and expand your mind to the possibility that you can create anything you desire using the full potential of your mind. Now, on a sheet of paper, write down three things you want most in your life.
1. ________________________
2. ________________________
3. ________________________

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2009-05-29T16:31:00.000-07:00

Journal of Pragmatics 25 (1996) 349-367

Towards an anatomy of impoliteness

Jonathan Culpeper
Department of Linguistics and Modern English Language, Lancaster University,
Lancaster LA1 4YT, UK

Received August 1994; revised version January 1995

Abstract
Politeness theories have focussed on how communicative strategies are employed to promote or maintain social harmony in interaction. On the other hand, little work has been done on communicative strategies with the opposite orientation, that of attacking one's interlocutor and causing disharmony. In this paper, I consider the notions of inherent and mock impoliteness, and discuss contextual factors associated with impoliteness.

In particular, I attempt to
build an impoliteness framework which is parallel but opposite to Brown and Levinson's (1987) theory of politeness. Finally, I demonstrate that in some contexts specifically that of army training and literary drama - impoliteness behaviour is not a marginal activity, and that we need an appropriate descriptive frlmaework in order to account for it.

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2009-05-26T20:12:00.000-07:00

A Theory of Human Motivation
By. A. H. Maslow (1943)

I. INTRODUCTION

In a previous paper (13) various propositions were presented which would have to be included in any theory of human motivation that could lay claim to being definitive. These conclusions may be briefly summarized as follows:

1. The integrated wholeness of the organism must be one of the foundation stones of motivation theory.
2. The hunger drive (or any other physiological drive) was rejected as a centering point or model for a definitive theory of motivation. Any drive that is somatically based and localizable was shown to be atypical rather than typical in human motivation.
3. Such a theory should stress and center itself upon ultimate or basic goals rather than partial or superficial ones, upon ends rather than means to these ends. Such a stress would imply a more central place for unconscious than for conscious motivations.
4. There are usually available various cultural paths to the same goal. Therefore conscious, specific, local-cultural desires are not as fundamental in motivation theory as the more basic, unconscious goals.
5. Any motivated behavior, either preparatory or consummatory, must be understood to be a channel through which many basic needs may be simultaneously expressed or satisfied. Typically an act has more than one motivation.
6. Practically all organismic states are to be understood as motivated and as motivating.
7. Human needs arrange themselves in hierarchies of pre-potency. That is to say, the appearance of one need usually rests on the prior satisfaction of another, more pre-potent need. Man is a perpetually wanting animal. Also no need or drive can be treated as if it were isolated or discrete; every drive is related to the state of satisfaction or dissatisfaction of other drives.
8. Lists of drives will get us nowhere for various theoretical and practical reasons. Furthermore any classification of motivations must deal with the problem of levels of specificity or generalization the motives to be classified.
9. Classifications of motivations must be based upon goals rather than upon instigating drives or motivated behavior.
10. Motivation theory should be human-centered rather than animalcentered.
11. The situation or the field in which the organism reacts must be taken into account but the field alone can rarely serve as an exclusive explanation for behavior. Furthermore the field itself must be interpreted in terms of the organism. Field theory cannot be a substitute for motivation theory.
12. Not only the integration of the organism must be taken into account, but also the possibility of isolated, specific, partial or 1 segmental reactions. It has since become necessary to add to these another affirmation.
13. Motivation theory is not synonymous with behavior theory. The motivations are only one class of determinants of behavior. While behavior is almost always motivated, it is also almost always biologically, culturally and situationally determined as well.

The present paper is an attempt to formulate a positive theory of motivation which will satisfy these theoretical demands and at the same time conform to the known facts, clinical and observational as well as experimental. It derives most directly, however, from clinical experience. This theory is, I think, in the functionalist tradition of James and Dewey, and is fused with the holism of Wertheimer (19), Goldstein (6), and Gestalt Psychology, and with the dynamicism of Freud (4) and Adler (1). This fusion or synthesis may arbitrarily be called a 'general-dynamic' theory.

It is far easier to perceive and to criticize the aspects in motivation theory than to remedy them. Mostly this is because of the very serious lack of sound data in this area. I conceive this lack of sound facts to be due primarily to the absence of a valid theory of motivation. The present theory then must be considered to be a suggested program or framework for future research and must stand or fall, not so much on facts available or evidence presented, as upon researches to be done,
researches suggested perhaps, by the questions raised in this paper.

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2009-05-26T18:49:00.000-07:00

Dream Psychology

DREAMS HAVE A MEANING
By. PROF. DR. Sigmund Freud.

In what we may term "prescientific days" people were in no uncertainty about the interpretation of dreams. When they were recalled after awakening they were regarded as either the friendly or hostile manifestation of some higher powers, demoniacal and Divine. With the rise of scientific thought the whole of this expressive mythology was transferred to psychology; to-day there is but a small minority among educated persons who doubt that the dream is the dreamer's own psychical act. But since the downfall of the mythological hypothesis an interpretation of the dream has been wanting. The conditions of its origin; its relationship to our psychical life when we are awake; its independence of disturbances which, during the state of sleep, seem to compel notice; its many peculiarities repugnant to our waking thought; the incongruence between its images and the feelings they engender; then the dream's
evanescence, the way in which, on awakening, our thoughts thrust it aside as something bizarre, and our reminiscences mutilating or rejecting it all these and many other problems have for many hundred years demanded answers which up till now could never have been satisfactory. Before all there is the question as to the meaning of the dream, a question which is in itself double sided. There is, firstly, the psychical significance of the dream, its position with regard to the psychical processes, as to a possible biological function; secondly, has the dream a meaning can sense be made of each single dream as of ot her mental syntheses?

Three tendencies can be observed in the estimation of dreams. Many philosophers have given currency to one of these tendencies, one which at the same time preserves something of the dream's former over-valuation. The foundation of dream life is for them a peculiar state of psychical activity, which they even celebrate as elevation
to some higher state. Schubert, for instance, claims: "The dream is the liberation of the spirit from the pressure of external nature, a detachment of the soul from the fetters of matter." Not all go so far as this, but many maintain that dreams have their origin in real spiritual excitations, and are the outward manifestations of spiritual powers whose free movements have been hampered during the day ("Dream
Phantasies," Scherner, Volkelt). A large number of observers acknowledge
that dream life is capable of extraordinary achievements at any rate, in certain fields ("Memory").

In striking contradiction with this the majority of medical writers hardly admit that the dream is a psychical phenomenon at all. According to them dreams are provoked and initiated exclusively by stimuli proceeding from the senses or the body, which either reach the sleeper from without or are accidental disturbances of his internal organs.

The dream has no greater claim to meaning and importance than the sound called forth by the ten fingers of a person quite unacquainted with music running his fingers over the keys of an instrument. The dream is to be regarded, says Binz, "as a physical process always useless, frequently morbid." All the peculiarities of dream life are explicable as the incoherent effort, due to some physiological stimulus, of certain
organs, or of the cortical elements of a brain otherwise asleep. But slightly affected by scientific opinion and untroubled as to the origin of dreams, the popular view holds firmly to the belief that dreams really have got a meaning, in some way they do foretell the future, whilst the meaning can be unravelled in some way or other from its oft bizarre and enigmatical content. The reading of dreams consists
in replacing the events of the dream, so far as remembered, by other events. This is done either scene by scene, according to some rigid key, or the dream as a whole is replaced by something else of which it was a symbol. Serious-minded persons laugh at these efforts "Dreams are but sea-foam!"

One day I discovered to my amazement that the popular view grounded in superstition, and not the medical one, comes nearer to the truth about dreams. I arrived at new conclusions about dreams by the use of a new method of psychological investigation, one which had rendered me good service in the investigation of phobias, obsessions, illusions, and the like, and which, under the name "psycho-analysis," had found acceptance by a whole school of investigators. The manifold analogies of dream life with the most diverse conditions of psychical disease in the waking state have been rightly insisted upon by a number of medical observers.

It seemed, therefore, a priori, hopeful to apply to the interpretation of dreams methods of investigation which had been tested in psychopathological processes. Obsessions and those peculiar sensations of haunting dread remain as strange to normal consciousness as do dreams to our waking consciousness; their origin is as unknown to consciousness as is that of dreams. It was practical ends that impelled
us, in these diseases, to fathom their origin and formation. Experience had shown us that a cure and a consequent mastery of the obsessing ideas did result when once those thoughts, the connecting links between the morbid ideas and the rest of the psychical content, were revealed which were heretofore veiled from consciousness. The procedure I employed for the interpretation of dreams thus arose from psychotherapy.
This procedure is readily described, although its practice demands instruction and experience. Suppose the patient is suffering from intense morbid dread. He is requested to direct his attention to the idea in question, without, however, as he has so frequently done, meditating upon it. Every impression about it, without any exception, which occurs to him should be imparted to the doctor. The statement which will be perhaps then made, that he cannot concentrate his attention upon anything at all, is to be countered by assuring him most positively that such a blank state of mind is utterly impossible. As a matter of fact, a great number of impressions will soon occur, with which others will associate themselves. These will be invariably accompanied by the expression of the observer's opinion that they have no meaning or are unimportant. It will be at once noticed that it is this self-criticism which prevented the patient from imparting the ideas, which had indeed already excluded them from consciousness. If the patient can be induced to abandon this self-criticism and to pursue the trains of thought which are yielded by concentrating the attention,
most significant matter will be obtained, matter which will be presently seen to be clearly linked to the morbid idea in question. Its connection with other ideas will be manifest, and later on will permit the replacement of the morbid idea by a fresh one, which is perfectly adapted to psychical continuity.

This is not the place to examine thoroughly the hypothesis upon which this experiment rests, or the deductions which follow from its invariable success. It must suffice to state that we obtain matter enough for the resolution of every morbid idea if we especially direct our attention to the _unbidden_ associations _which disturb our
thoughts_--those which are otherwise put aside by the critic as worthless refuse. If the procedure is exercised on oneself, the best plan of helping the experiment is to write down at once all one's first indistinct fancies.

I will now point out where this method leads when I apply it to the examination of dreams. Any dream could be made use of in this way. From certain motives I, however, choose a dream of my own, which appears confused and meaningless to my memory, and one which has the advantage of brevity. Probably my dream of last night satisfies the requirements.

Its content, fixed immediately after awakening, runs as follows:"Company; at table or table d'hÃ´te.... Spinach is served. Mrs. E.L., sitting next to me, gives me her undivided attention, and places her hand familiarly upon my knee. In defence I remove her hand. Then she says: 'But you have always had such beautiful eyes.'.... I then
distinctly see something like two eyes as a sketch or as the contour of a spectacle lens...."

This is the whole dream, or, at all events, all that I can remember. It appears to me not only obscure and meaningless, but more especially odd. Mrs. E.L. is a person with whom I am scarcely on visiting terms, nor to my knowledge have I ever desired any more cordial relationship. I have not seen her for a long time, and do not think there was any mention of her recently. No emotion whatever accompanied the dream process.

Reflecting upon this dream does not make it a bit clearer to my mind. I will now, however, present the ideas, without premeditation and with out criticism, which introspection yielded. I soon notice that it is an advantage to break up the dream into its elements, and to search out the ideas which link themselves to each fragment. Company; at table or table d'hÃ´te. The recollection of the slight
event with which the evening of yesterday ended is at once called up. I left a small party in the company of a friend, who offered to drive me home in his cab. "I prefer a taxi," he said; "that gives one such a pleasant occupation; there is always something to look at." When we were in the cab, and the cab-driver turned the disc so that the first sixty hellers were visible, I continued the jest. "We have hardly got in and we already owe sixty hellers. The taxi always reminds me of the table
d'hÃ´te. It makes me avaricious and selfish by continuously reminding me of my debt. It seems to me to mount up too quickly, and I am always afraid that I shall be at a disadvantage, just as I cannot resist at table d'hÃ´te the comical fear that I am getting too little, that I must look after myself." In far-fetched connection with this I quote: "To earth, this weary earth, ye bring us, To guilt ye let us heedless go."

Another idea about the table d'hÃ´te. A few weeks ago I was very cross with my dear wife at the dinner-table at a Tyrolese health resort, because she was not sufficiently reserved with some neighbors with whom I wished to have absolutely nothing to do. I begged her to occupy herself rather with me than with the strangers. That is just as if I had been at a disadvantage at the table d'hÃ´te. The contrast between the behavior of my wife at the table and that of Mrs. E.L. in the dream
now strikes me: "Addresses herself entirely to me".

Further, I now notice that the dream is the reproduction of a little scene which transpired between my wife and myself when I was secretly courting her. The caressing under cover of the tablecloth was an answer to a wooer's passionate letter. In the dream, however, my wife is replaced by the unfamiliar E.L. Mrs. E.L. is the daughter of a man to whom I owed money! I cannot help noticing that here there is revealed an unsuspected connection between the dream content and my thoughts. If the chain of associations be followed up which proceeds from one element of the dream one is soon
led back to another of its elements. The thoughts evoked by the dream stir up associations which were not noticeable in the dream itself.

Is it not customary, when some one expects others to look after his interests without any advantage to themselves, to ask the innocent question satirically: "Do you think this will be done for the sake of your beautiful eyes ?" Hence Mrs. E.L.'s speech in the dream. "You have always had such beautiful eyes," means nothing but "people always do everything to you for love of you; you have had everything for nothing." The contrary is, of course, the truth; I have always paid dearly for whatever kindness others have shown me. Still, the fact that I had a ride for nothing yesterday when my friend drove me home in his cab must have made an impression upon me.

In any case, the friend whose guests we were yesterday has often made me his debtor. Recently I allowed an opportunity of requiting him to go by. He has had only one present from me, an antique shawl, upon which eyes are painted all round, a so called Occhiale, as a charm against the Malocchio. Moreover, he is an eye specialist. That same evening I had asked him after a patient whom I had sent to him for glasses.

As I remarked, nearly all parts of the dream have been brought into this new connection. I still might ask why in the dream it was spinach that was served up. Because spinach called up a little scene which recently occurred at our table. A child, whose beautiful eyes are really deserving of praise, refused to eat spinach. As a child I was just the same; for a long time I loathed spinach, until in later l
ife my tastes altered, and it became one of my favorite dishes. The mention of this dish brings my own childhood and that of my child's near together. "You should be glad that you have some spinach," his mother had said to the little gourmet. "Some children would be very glad to get spinach." Thus I am reminded of the parents' duties towards their children. Goethe's words "To earth, this weary earth, ye bring us, To guilt ye let us heedless go" take on another meaning in this connection.

Here I will stop in order that I may recapitulate the results of the analysis of the dream. By following the associations which were linked to the single elements of the dream torn from their context, I have been led to a series of thoughts and reminiscences where I am bound to recognize interesting expressions of my psychical life. The matter yielded by an analysis of the dream stands in intimate relationship
with the dream content, but this relationship is so special that I should never have been able to have inferred the new discoveries directly from the dream itself. The dream was passionless, disconnected, and unintelligible. During the time that I am unfolding the thoughts at the back of the dream I feel intense and well-grounded emotions. The thoughts themselves fit beautifully together into chains logically bound together with certain central ideas which ever repeat themselves. Such ideas not represented in the dream itself are in this instance the antitheses selfish, unselfish, to be indebted, to work for nothing. I could draw closer the threads of the web which analysis has disclosed, and would then be able to show how they all run together into a single knot; I am debarred from making this work public by considerations of a private, not of a scientific, nature. After having cleared up many things which I do not willingly acknowledge as mine, I should have much to reveal which had better remain my secret. Why, then, do not I choose another dream whose analysis would be more suitable for publication, so that I could awaken a fairer conviction of the sense and cohesion of the results disclosed by analysis? The answer is, because every dream which I investigate leads to the same difficulties and places me under the same need of discretion; nor should I forgo this difficulty any the more were I to analyze the dream of some one else. That could only be done when opportunity allowed all concealment to be dropped without injury to those who trusted me.

The conclusion which is now forced upon me is that the dream is a sort of substitution for those emotional and intellectual trains of thought which I attained after complete analysis. I do not yet know the process by which the dream arose from those thoughts, but I perceive that it is wrong to regard the dream as psychically unimportant, a purely physical process which has arisen from the activity of isolated cortical elements awakened out of sleep.

I must further remark that the dream is far shorter than the thoughts which I hold it replaces; whilst analysis discovered that the dream was provoked by an unimportant occurrence the evening before the dream. Naturally, I would not draw such far-reaching conclusions if only one analysis were known to me. Experience has shown me that when the associations of any dream are honestly followed such a chain of thought is revealed, the constituent parts of the dream reappear correctly and sensibly linked together; the slight suspicion that this concatenati on was merely an accident of a single first observation must, therefore, be absolutely relinquished. I regard it, therefore, as my right to establish this new view by a proper nomenclature. I contrast the dream which my memory evokes with the dream and other added matter revealed by analysis: the former I call the dream's manifest content; the latter, without at first further subdivision, its latent content. I arrive
at two new problems hitherto unformulated: (1) What is the psychical process which has transformed the latent content of the dream into its manifest content? (2) What is the motive or the motives which have made such transformation exigent? The process by which the change from latent to manifest content is executed I name the dream-work. In contrast with this is the work of analysis, which produces the everse transformation. The other problems of the dream the inquiry as to its stimuli, as to the source of its materials, as to its possible purpose, the function of dreaming, the forgetting of dreams these I will discuss in connection with the latent dream-content.

I shall take every care to avoid a confusion between the manifest and the latent content, for I ascribe all the contradictory as well as the incorrect accounts of dream-life to the ignorance of this latent content, now first laid bare through analysis.

The conversion of the latent dream thoughts into those manifest deserves our close study as the first known example of the transformation of psychical stuff from one mode of expression into another. From a mode of expression which, moreover, is readily intelligible into another which we can only penetrate by effort and with guidance, although this new mode must be equally reckoned as an effort of our own psychical activity. From the standpoint of the relationship of latent to manifest
dream-content, dreams can be divided into three classes. We can, in the first place, distinguish those dreams which have a meaning and are, at the same time, intelligible, which allow us to penetrate into our psychical life without further ado. Such dreams are numerous; they are usually short, and, as a general rule, do not seem very noticeable, because everything remarkable or exciting surprise is absent. Their occurrence is, moreover, a strong argument against the doctrine which derives the dream from the isolated activity of certain cortical elements. All signs of a lowered or subdivided psychical activity are wanting. Yet we never raise any objection to characterizing them as dreams, nor do we confound them with the products of our waking life.

A second group is formed by those dreams which are indeed self-coherent and have a distinct meaning, but appear strange because we are unable to reconcile their meaning with our mental life. That is the case when we dream, for instance, that some dear relative has died of plague when we know of no ground for expecting, apprehending, or assuming anything of the sort; we can only ask ourself wonderingly: "What brought that into my head?" To the third group those dreams belong which are void of both meaning and intelligibility; they are _incoherent, complicated, and meaningless_. The overwhelming number of our dreams partake of this character, and this has given rise to the contemptuous attitude to wards dreams and the medical theory of their limited psychical activity. It is especially in the longer and more complicated dream-plots that signs of incoherence are seldom missing.

The contrast between manifest and latent dream-content is clearly only of value for the dreams of the second and more especially for those of the third class. Here are problems which are only solved when the manifest dream is replaced by its latent content; it was an example of this kind, a complicated and unintelligible dream, that we subjected to analysis. Against our expectation we, however, struck upon reasons which prevented a complete cognizance of the latent dream thought. On the repetition of this same experience we were forced to the supposition that there is an intimate bond, with laws of its own, between the unintelligible and complicated nature of the dream and the difficulties attending communication of the thoughts connected with the dream.

Before investigating the nature of this bond, it will be advantageous to turn our attention to the more readily intelligible dreams of the first class where, the manifest and latent content being identical, the dream work seems to be omitted.
The investigation of these dreams is also advisable from another standpoint. The dreams of children are of this nature; they have a meaning, and are not bizarre. This, by the way, is a further objection to reducing dreams to a dissociation of cerebral activity in sleep, for why should such a lowering of psychical functions belong to the natureof sleep in adults, but not in children? We are, however, fully
justified in expecting that the explanation of psychical processes in children, essentially simplified as they may be, should serve as an indispensable preparation towards the psychology of the adult.

I shall therefore cite some examples of dreams which I have gathered from children. A girl of nineteen months was made to go without food for a day because she had been sick in the morning, and, according to nurse, had made herself ill through eating strawberries. During the night, after her day of fasting, she was heard calling out her name during sleep, and adding: "_Tawberry, eggs, pap_." She is dreaming that she is eating, and selects out of her menu exactly what she supposes she will not get much of just now.

The same kind of dream about a forbidden dish was that of a little boy of twenty-two months. The day before he was told to offer his uncle a present of a small basket of cherries, of which the child was, of course, only allowed one to taste. He woke up with the joyful news: "Hermann eaten up all the cherries." A girl of three and a half years had made during the day a sea trip which was too short for her, and she cried when she had to get out of the boat. The next morning her story was that during the night she had been on the sea, thus continuing the interrupted trip.

A boy of five and a half years was not at all pleased with his party during a walk in the Dachstein region. Whenever a new peak came into sight he asked if that were the Dachstein, and, finally, refused to accompany the party to the waterfall. His behavior was ascribed to fatigue; but a better explanation was forthcoming when the next morning he told his dream: he had ascended the Dachstein. Obviously he expected the ascent of the Dachstein to be the object of the excursi on, and was vexed by not getting a glimpse of the mountain. The dream gave him what the day had withheld. The dream of a girl of six was similar; her father had cut short the walk before reaching the promised objective on account of the lateness of the hour. On the way back she noticed a signpost giving the name of another place for excursions; her father promised to take her there also some other day. She greeted her father next day with the news that she had dreamt that her father had been with her to both places.

What is common in all these dreams is obvious. They completely satisfy wishes excited during the day which remain unrealized. They are simply and undisguisedly realizations of wishes. The following child-dream, not quite understandable at first sight, is nothing else than a wish realized. On account of poliomyelitis a girl, not quite four years of age, was brought from the country into town, and remained over night with a childless aunt in a big for her, naturally, huge bed. The next morning she stated that she had dreamt that the bed was much too small for her, so that she could find no place in it.

To explain this dream as a wish is easy when we remember that to be "big" is a frequently expressed wish of all children. The bigness of the bed reminded Miss Little-Would-be-Big only too forcibly of her smallness. This nasty situation became righted in her dream, and she grew so big that the bed now became too small for her.
Even when children's dreams are complicated and polished, their comprehension as a realization of desire is fairly evident. A boy of eight dreamt that he was being driven with Achilles in a war-chariot, guided by Diomedes. The day before he was assiduously reading about great heroes. It is easy to show that he took these heroes as his models, and regretted that he was not living in those days.

From this short collection a further characteristic of the dreams of children is manifest their connection with the life of the day. The desires which are realized in these dreams are left over from the day or, as a rule, the day previous, and the feeling has become intently emphasized and fixed during the day thoughts. Accidental and indifferent matters, or what must appear so to the child, find no acceptance in
the contents of the dream.

Innumerable instances of such dreams of the infantile type can be found among adults also, but, as mentioned, these are mostly exactly like the manifest content. Thus, a random selection of persons will generally respond to thirst at night-time with a dream about drinking, thus striving to get rid of the sensation and to let sleep continue. Many persons frequently have these comforting dreams before waking, just when they are called. They then dream that they are already up, that they are washing, or already in school, at the office, etc., where they ought to be at a given time. The night before an intended journey one not infrequently dreams that one has already arrived at the destination; before going to a play or to a party the dream not infrequently anticipates, in impatience, as it were, the expected pleasure. At ot
her times the dream expresses the realization of the desire somewhat indirectly; some connection, some sequel must be known--the first step towards recognizing the desire. Thus, when a husband related to me the dream of his young wife, that her monthly period had begun, I had to bethink myself that the young wife would have expected a pregnancy if the period had been absent. The dream is then a sign of pregnancy. Its
meaning is that it shows the wish realized that pregnancy should not occur just yet. Under unusual and extreme circumstances, these dreams of the infantile type become very frequent. The leader of a polar expedition tells us, for instance, that during the wintering amid the ice the crew, with their monotonous diet and slight rations, dreamt regularly, like children, of fine meals, of mountains of tobacco, and of home.

It is not uncommon that out of some long, complicated and intricate dream one specially lucid part stands out containing unmistakably the realization of a desire, but bound up with much unintelligible matter. On more frequently analyzing the seemingly more transparent dreams of adults, it is astonishing to discover that these are rarely as simple as the dreams of children, and that they cover another meaning beyond that of the realization of a wish.

It would certainly be a simple and convenient solution of the riddle if the work of analysis made it at all possible for us to trace the meaningless and intricate dreams of adults back to the infantile type, to the realization of some intensely experienced desire of the day. But there is no warrant for such an expectation. Their dreams are generally full of the most indifferent and bizarre matter, and no trace of the realization of the wish is to be found in their content.

Before leaving these infantile dreams, which are obviously unrealized desires, we must not fail to mention another chief characteristic of dreams, one that has been long noticed, and one which stands out most clearly in this class. I can replace any of these dreams by a phrase expressing a desire. If the sea trip had only lasted longer; if I were only washed and dressed; if I had only been allowed to keep the cherries instead of giving them to my uncle. But the dream gives something more than the choice, for here the desire is already realized; its realization is real and actual. The dream presentations consist chie fly, if not wholly, of scenes and mainly of visual sense images. Hence a kind of transformation is not entirely absent in this class of dreams, and this may be fairly designated as the dream work. An idea merely
existing in the region of possibility is replaced by a vision of its
accomplishment.

DownloadE-Book Lengkap

2009-05-26T12:25:00.000-07:00

Denial Of Service Attack

A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a computer resource unavailable to its intended users. Although the means to carry out, motives for, and targets of a DoS attack may vary, it generally consists of the concerted efforts of a person or persons to prevent an Internet site or service from functioning efficiently or at all, temporarily or indefinitely. Perpetrators of DoS attacks typically target sites or services hosted on high-profile web servers such as banks, credit card payment gateways, and even root nameservers.

One common method of attack involves saturating the target (victim) machine with external communications requests, such that it cannot respond to legitimate traffic, or responds so slowly as to be rendered effectively unavailable. In general terms, DoS attacks are implemented by either forcing the targeted computer(s) to reset, or consuming its resources so that it can no longer provide its intended service or obstructing the communication media between the intended users and the victim so that they can no longer communicate adequately.

Denial-of-service attacks are considered violations of the IAB's Internet Proper Use Policy. They also commonly constitute violations of the laws of individual nations.

Means
As there are two main types of attack (wired and wireless), different material is to be used for each of the two types.

Attacks on wired networks require a great deal of computing power, often even requiring the need of distributed computing. Attacks on wired networks do not require any NICs or external antennae, yet often do have the need of a (broadband) connection to the Internet.

Attacks on wireless networks require a high power NIC and usually a high-gain (directional) external antenna (to increase range as well as power output). High power NICs fall in the range of the 300mW-cards. Examples can be found from companies such as Demarc Technology Group.

Manifestations
The United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team defines symptoms of denial-of-service attacks to include:

* Unusually slow network performance (opening files or accessing web sites)
* Unavailability of a particular web site
* Inability to access any web site
* Dramatic increase in the number of spam emails received—(this type of DoS attack is considered an e-mail bomb)

Denial-of-service attacks can also lead to problems in the network 'branches' around the actual computer being attacked. For example, the bandwith of a router between the Internet and a LAN may be consumed by an attack, compromising not only the intended computer, but also the entire network.

If the attack is conducted on a sufficiently large scale, entire geographical regions of Internet connectivity can be compromised without the attacker's knowledge or intent by incorrectly configured or flimsy network infrastructure equipment.

Methods of attack
A "denial-of-service" attack is characterized by an explicit attempt by attackers to prevent legitimate users of a service from using that service. Attacks can be directed at any network device, including attacks on routing devices and web, electronic mail, or Domain Name System servers.

A DoS attack can be perpetrated in a number of ways. The five basic types of attack are:

1. Consumption of computational resources, such as bandwidth, disk space, or processor time
2. Disruption of configuration information, such as routing information.
3. Disruption of state information, such as unsolicited resetting of TCP sessions.
4. Disruption of physical network components.
5. Obstructing the communication media between the intended users and the victim so that they can no longer communicate adequately.

A DoS attack may include execution of malware intended to:

* Max out the processor's usage, preventing any work from occurring.
* Trigger errors in the microcode of the machine.
* Trigger errors in the sequencing of instructions, so as to force the computer into an unstable state or lock-up.
* Exploits errors in the operating system to cause resource starvation and/or thrashing, i.e. to use up all available facilities so no real work can be accomplished.
* Crash the operating system itself.
* iFrame (D)DoS, in which an HTML document is made to visit a webpage with many KB's of information many times, until they achieve the amount of visits to where bandwidth limit is exceeded.

ICMP flood
See also: Smurf attack, Ping flood, and Ping of death

A smurf attack is one particular variant of a flooding DoS attack on the public Internet. It relies on misconfigured network devices that allow packets to be sent to all computer hosts on a particular network via the broadcast address of the network, rather than a specific machine. The network then serves as a smurf amplifier. In such an attack, the perpetrators will send large numbers of IP packets with the source address faked to appear to be the address of the victim. The network's bandwidth is quickly used up, preventing legitimate packets from getting through to their destination. To combat Denial of Service attacks on the Internet, services like the Smurf Amplifier Registry have given network service providers the ability to identify misconfigured networks and to take appropriate action such as filtering.

Ping flood is based on sending the victim an overwhelming number of ping packets, usually using the "ping -t" command from unix like hosts (the -t flag on Windows systems has a far less malignant function). It is very simple to launch, the primary requirement being access to greater bandwidth than the victim.

SYN flood sends a flood of TCP/SYN packets, often with a forged sender address. Each of these packets is handled like a connection request, causing the server to spawn a half-open connection, by sending back a TCP/SYN-ACK packet, and waiting for a packet in response from the sender address. However, because the sender address is forged, the response never comes. These half-open connections saturate the number of available connections the server is able to make, keeping it from responding to legitimate requests until after the attack ends.

Teardrop attack
A Teardrop attack involves sending mangled IP fragments with overlapping, over-sized, payloads to the target machine. A bug in the TCP/IP fragmentation re-assembly code of various operating systems causes the fragments to be improperly handled, crashing them as a result of this.[4] Windows 3.1x, Windows 95, and Windows NT operating systems, as well as versions of Linux prior to versions 2.0.32 and 2.1.63 are vulnerable to this attack.

Peer-to-peer attacks
Attackers have found a way to exploit a number of bugs in peer-to-peer servers to initiate DDoS attacks. The most aggressive of these peer-to-peer-DDoS attacks exploits DC++. Peer-to-peer attacks are different from regular botnet-based attacks. With peer-to-peer there is no botnet and the attacker does not have to communicate with the clients it subverts. Instead, the attacker acts as a 'puppet master,' instructing clients of large peer-to-peer file sharing hubs to disconnect from their peer-to-peer network and to connect to the victim’s website instead. As a result, several thousand computers may aggressively try to connect to a target website. While a typical web server can handle a few hundred connections/sec before performance begins to degrade, most web servers fail almost instantly under five or six thousand connections/sec. With a moderately big peer-to-peer attack a site could potentially be hit with up to 750,000 connections in a short order. The targeted web server will be plugged up by the incoming connections. While peer-to-peer attacks are easy to identify with signatures, the large number of IP addresses that need to be blocked (often over 250,000 during the course of a big attack) means that this type of attack can overwhelm mitigation defenses. Even if a mitigation device can keep blocking IP addresses, there are other problems to consider. For instance, there is a brief moment where the connection is opened on the server side before the signature itself comes through. Only once the connection is opened to the server can the identifying signature be sent and detected, and the connection torn down. Even tearing down connections takes server resources and can harm the server.

This method of attack can be prevented by specifying in the p2p protocol which ports are allowed or not. If port 80 is not allowed, the possibilities for attack on websites can be very limited.

Permanent denial-of-service attacks
A permanent denial-of-service (PDoS), also known loosely as phlashing, is an attack that damages a system so badly that it requires replacement or reinstallation of hardware. Unlike the distributed denial-of-service attack, a PDoS attack exploits security flaws in the remote management interfaces of the victim's hardware, be it routers, printers, or other networking hardware. These flaws leave the door open for an attacker to remotely 'update' the device firmware to a modified, corrupt or defective firmware image, therefore "bricking" the device and making it permanently unusable for its original purpose. The PDoS is a pure hardware targeted attack which can be much faster and requires fewer resources than using a botnet in a DDoS attack. Because of these features, and the potential and high probability of security exploits on Network Enabled Embedded Devices (NEEDs), this technique has come to the attention of numerous hacker communities such as Hack a Day.

PhlashDance is a tool created by Rich Smith (an employee of Hewlett-Packard's Systems Security Lab) used to detect and demonstrate PDoS vulnerabilities at the 2008 EUSecWest Applied Security Conference in London.

Application level floods
On IRC, IRC floods are a common electronic warfare weapon.

Various DoS-causing exploits such as buffer overflow can cause server-running software to get confused and fill the disk space or consume all available memory or CPU time.

Other kinds of DoS rely primarily on brute force, flooding the target with an overwhelming flux of packets, oversaturating its connection bandwidth or depleting the target's system resources. Bandwidth-saturating floods rely on the attacker having higher bandwidth available than the victim; a common way of achieving this today is via Distributed Denial of Service, employing a botnet. Other floods may use specific packet types or connection requests to saturate finite resources by, for example, occupying the maximum number of open connections or filling the victim's disk space with logs.

A "banana attack" is another particular type of DoS. It involves redirecting outgoing messages from the client back onto the client, preventing outside access, as well as flooding the client with the sent packets.

An attacker with access to a victim's computer may slow it until it is unusable or crash it by using a fork bomb.

Nuke
A Nuke is an old denial-of-service attack against computer networks consisting of fragmented or otherwise invalid ICMP packets sent to the target, achieved by using a modified ping utility to repeatedly send this corrupt data, thus slowing down the affected computer until it comes to a complete stop.

In online gaming, nuking is used by spamming another user, or all other users, with random repeated messages in quick succession. Such techniques are also seen in instant messaging programs as repeatedly sending text can be assigned to a macro or AppleScript. Modern operating systems are usually resistant to these nuke attacks, and online games now have third party "Flood control."

A specific example of a nuke attack that gained some prominence is the WinNuke, which exploited the vulnerability in the NetBIOS handler in Windows 95. A string of out-of-band data was sent to TCP port 139 of the victim's machine, causing it to lock up and display a Blue Screen of Death.

Distributed attack
A distributed denial of service attack (DDoS) occurs when multiple systems flood the bandwidth or resources of a targeted system, usually one or more web servers. These systems are compromised by attackers using a variety of methods.

Malware can carry DDoS attack mechanisms; one of the more well known examples of this was MyDoom. Its DoS mechanism was triggered on a specific date and time. This type of DDoS involved hardcoding the target IP address prior to release of the malware and no further interaction was necessary to launch the attack.

A system may also be compromised with a trojan, allowing the attacker to download a zombie agent (or the trojan may contain one). Attackers can also break into systems using automated tools that exploit flaws in programs that listen for connections from remote hosts. This scenario primarily concerns systems acting as servers on the web.

Stacheldraht is a classic example of a DDoS tool. It utilizes a layered structure where the attacker uses a client program to connect to handlers, which are compromised systems that issue commands to the zombie agents, which in turn facilitate the DDoS attack. Agents are compromised via the handlers by the attacker, using automated routines to exploit vulnerabilities in programs that accept remote connections running on the targeted remote hosts. Each handler can control up to a thousand agents.

These collections of systems compromisers are known as botnets. DDoS tools like stacheldraht still use classic DoS attack methods centered on IP spoofing and amplification like smurf attacks and fraggle attacks (these are also known as bandwidth consumption attacks). SYN floods (also known as resource starvation attacks) may also be used. Newer tools can use DNS servers for DoS purposes. (see next section)

Unlike MyDoom's DDoS mechanism, botnets can be turned against any IP address. Script kiddies use them to deny the availability of well known websites to legitimate users. More sophisticated attackers use DDoS tools for the purposes of extortion — even against their business rivals.

It is important to note the difference between a DDoS and DoS attack. If an attacker mounts a smurf attack from a single host it would be classified as a DoS attack. In fact, any attack against availability would be classed as a Denial of Service attack. On the other hand, if an attacker uses a thousand zombie systems to simultaneously launch smurf attacks against a remote host, this would be classified as a DDoS attack.

The major advantages to an attacker of using a distributed denial-of-service attack are that multiple machines can generate more attack traffic than one machine, multiple attack machines are harder to turn off than one attack machine, and that the behavior of each attack machine can be stealthier, making it harder to track down and shut down. These attacker advantages cause challenges for defense mechanisms. For example, merely purchasing more incoming bandwidth than the current volume of the attack might not help, because the attacker might be able to simply add more attack machines.

Although most DDoS attacks are malicious in nature, the same technique can be used to aid the Internet community. Internet fraud schemes, such as Nigerian 419 scams or phishing, commonly involve fraudulent websites that either impersonate a real website for purposes of stealing the victim's identity, or lend credibility to a scammer's fictional business venture to lure the victim into a false sense of confidence. Scam baiters, who combat these scams by posing as victims for the purpose of wasting the scammer's time and money and obtaining information that can be used by authorities, will forward sites they encounter during the course of their conversations to groups that specialize in site-killing.[citation needed] The group will first try to have a site taken down by informing the host of said site that the site is being used fraudulently. In the case where that approach fails, the group will organize a "takedown" of the site by encouraging its members to visit the site en masse and continually refresh its content (an intentional form of the Slashdot effect sometimes referred to as flash mobbing, although that term is technically reserved for real-world gatherings). Alternately, some groups have special web pages that link to images hosted by these fake sites and show the images to visitors (usually members or supporters of the site-killing group) while constantly reloading them, which is known as intentional bandwidth hogging.[citation needed] The purpose, similar to malicious DoS attacks, is to (a.) rapidly consume all of the website's allocated monthly bandwidth, after which requests for the site's content are refused, (b.) draw the attention of the site's host, who when faced with the constant onslaught on the entire hosting network's resources, will usually remove the site, and/or (c.) take up all available connections and maximum throughput of the host so that would-be victims cannot access the site.

Reflected attack
A distributed reflected denial of service attack (DRDoS) involves sending forged requests of some type to a very large number of computers that will reply to the requests. Using Internet protocol spoofing, the source address is set to that of the targeted victim, which means all the replies will go to (and flood) the target.

ICMP Echo Request attacks (Smurf Attack) can be considered one form of reflected attack, as the flooding host(s) send Echo Requests to the broadcast addresses of mis-configured networks, thereby enticing many hosts to send Echo Reply packets to the victim. Some early DDoS programs implemented a distributed form of this attack.

Many services can be exploited to act as reflectors, some harder to block than others. DNS amplification attacks involve a new mechanism that increased the amplification effect, using a much larger list of DNS servers than seen earlier.

Degradation-of-service attacks
"Pulsing" zombies are compromised computers that are directed to launch intermittent and short-lived floodings of victim websites with the intent of merely slowing it rather than crashing it. This type of attack, referred to as "degradation-of-service" rather than "denial-of-service", can be more difficult to detect than regular zombie invasions and can disrupt and hamper connection to websites for prolonged periods of time, potentially causing more damage than concentrated floods.[16][17] Exposure of degradation-of-service attacks is complicated further by the matter of discerning whether the attacks really are attacks or just healthy and likely desired increases in website traffic.

Unintentional denial of service
This describes a situation where a website ends up denied, not due to a deliberate attack by a single individual or group of individuals, but simply due to a sudden enormous spike in popularity. This can happen when an extremely popular website posts a prominent link to a second, less well-prepared site, for example, as part of a news story. The result is that a significant proportion of the primary site's regular users — potentially hundreds of thousands of people — click that link in the space of a few hours, having the same effect on the target website as a DDoS attack.

News sites and link sites — sites whose primary function is to provide links to interesting content elsewhere on the Internet — are most likely to cause this phenomenon. The canonical example is the Slashdot effect. Sites such as Digg, the Drudge Report, Fark, Something Awful, and the webcomic Penny Arcade have their own corresponding "effects", known as "the Digg effect", being "drudged", "farking", "goonrushing" and "wanging"; respectively.

Routers have also been known to create unintentional DoS attacks, as both D-Link and Netgear routers have created NTP vandalism by flooding NTP servers without respecting the restrictions of client types or geographical limitations.

Similar unintentional denials of service can also occur via other media, e.g. when a URL is mentioned on television. If a server is being indexed by Google or another search engine during peak periods of activity, or does not have a lot of available bandwidth while being indexed, it can also experience the effects of a DoS attack.

Legal action has been taken in at least one such case. In 2006, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment Corporation has sued YouTube: massive numbers of would-be youtube.com users accidentally typed the tube company's URL, utube.com; as a result, the tube company ended up having to spend large amounts of money on upgrading their bandwidth.

Denial-of-Service Level II
The goal of DoS L2 (possibly DDoS) attack is to cause a launching of a defense mechanism which blocks the network segment from which the attack originated. In case of distributed attack or IP header modification (that depends on the kind of security behavior) it will fully block the attacked network from Internet, but without system crash.

Blind Denial of Service
Blind Denial of Service attacks are particularly pernicious. With a blind attack the attacker has a significant advantage. If the attacker must be able to receive traffic from the victim, then he must either subvert the routing fabric or use his own IP address. Either provides an opportunity for the victim to track the attacker and/or filter out his traffic. With a blind attack the attacker can use forged IP addresses, making it extremely difficult for the victim to filter out their packets. The TCP SYN flood attack is an example of a blind attack. Designers should make every attempt possible to prevent blind denial of service attacks.

Incidents
The first major attack involving DNS servers as reflectors occurred in January 2001. The target was Register.com.[21] This attack, which forged requests for the MX records of AOL.com (to amplify the attack) lasted about a week before it could be traced back to all attacking hosts and shut off. It used a list of tens of thousands of DNS records that were a year old at the time of the attack.

In February, 2001, the Irish Government's Department of Finance server was hit by a denial of service attack carried out as part of a student campaign from NUI Maynooth. The Department officially complained to the University authorities and a number of students were disciplined.[citation needed]

In July 2002, the Honeynet Project Reverse Challenge was issued. The binary that was analyzed turned out to be yet another DDoS agent, which implemented several DNS related attacks, including an optimized form of a reflection attack.

On two occasions to date, attackers have performed DNS Backbone DDoS Attacks on the DNS root servers. Since these machines are intended to provide service to all Internet users, these two denial of service attacks might be classified as attempts to take down the entire Internet, though it is unclear what the attackers' true motivations were. The first occurred in October 2002 and disrupted service at 9 of the 13 root servers. The second occurred in February 2007 and caused disruptions at two of the root servers.[citation needed]

In February 2007, more than 10,000 online game servers in games such as Return to Castle Wolfenstein, Halo, Counter-Strike and many others were attacked by "RUS" hacker group. The DDoS attack was made from more than a thousand computer units located in the republics of the former Soviet Union, mostly from Russia, Uzbekistan and Belarus. Minor attacks are still continuing to be made today.[citation needed]

In the weeks leading up to the five-day 2008 South Ossetia war, a DDoS attack directed at Georgian government sites containing the message: “win+love+in+Rusia" effectively overloaded and shut down multiple Georgian servers. Websites targeted included the Web site of the Georgian president, Mikhail Saakashvili, rendered inoperable for 24 hours, and the National Bank of Georgia. While heavy suspicion was placed on Russia for orchestrating the attack through a proxy, the St. Petersburg-based criminal gang known as the Russian Business Network, or R.B.N, the Russian government denied the allegations, stating that it was possible that individuals in Russia or elsewhere had taken it upon themselves to start the attacks.

Performing DoS-attacks
A wide array of programs are used to launch DoS-attacks. Most of these programs are completely focused on performing DoS-attacks, while others are also true Packet Injector, thus able to perform other tasks as well.

E-Book Denial Of Service

2009-05-26T12:23:00.000-07:00

Ini Adalah

Kisah ttg NILAI KASIH IBU…
Seorang anak sdg mndapati ibunya sedang sibuk di dapur, kmdn menulis sesuatu di selembar kertas. Ibu menerima kertas tersebut dan membacanya…

Upah membantu Ibu:
- Pergi ke warung 20 ribu
- Menjaga adik 20 ribu
- Buang sampah 5 ribu
- Membereskan tempat tidur 10 ribu
- Menyiram bunga 15 ribu Menyapu 15 ribu
Jmlh: 85 ribu

Selesai membaca, ibupun tersenyum, kemudian mengambil pena lalu menulis di belakang kertas yang sama:
- Mengandung selama 9 bln: gratis
- Meluapkan rasa sakitku saat melihatmu lahir: gratis
- Jaga malam krn tangisanmu: Gratis
- Air mata yang menetes karenamu: Gratis
- Khawatir memikirkan keadaanmu: Gratis
- Menyediakan makan, minum, pakaian, dan keperluanmu selama ini: Gratis
Jmlh keseluruhan nilai kasihku padamua: GRATIS

Air mata anak berlinang setelah membacanya, lalu memeluk ibunya dan brkata,” AKU SAYANG PADAMU IBU…..”
Kmdn dia mengambil pena dan menulis di kertas yang ditulisnya tadi: LUNAS

2009-05-26T12:21:00.000-07:00

Sudah Siap Melamar Si Dia?
Dicuplik dari tabloid NOVA

Hmm, jadi Anda sudah memutuskan untuk mengajaknya naik pelaminan dan
mulai mengarungi bahtera kehidupan bersama? Selamat! Tapi sebelum
mengajukan lamaran, ada beberapa hal yang sebaiknya diperhatikan.
Soalnya, salah-salah melamar, si dia malah bisa "lepas" dari Anda.

YANG HARUS DILAKUKAN
1. Membicarakan Soal Pernikahan
Sebelum Anda melamar, bicarakan dengan pasangan mengenai kemungkinan
menikah. Pastikan yang Anda berdua harapkan dan inginkan merupakan
masalah utama, misalnya soal ingin memiliki kerutunan. Jangan berpikir,
"Ah, itu, sih, masalah gampang." Sebaik
nya ungkapkan keinginan dan tujuan masing-masing dari perkawinan yang
akan Anda bina. Ini penting, lo! Menikah berarti menghadapi
masalah-masalah baru yang harus dihadapi dan diputuskan bersama.
2. Buat Kejutan
Walaupun Anda berdua sudah membicarakan pernikahan, lamaran itu sendiri
tetap harus merupakan suatu kejutan. Cari waktu, cara, dan tempat yang
tepat untuk melakukannya agar pasangan tak salah menerima maksud Anda.
Sebab, jika Anda mengajaknya menikah dalam suasana yang kurang pas,
bisa-bisa ia menganggap Anda hanya bercanda alias tak serius.
3. Pilihlah Cincin Tunangan Yang Tepat
Banyak pasangan melalui masa pertunangan sebelum akhirnya naik
pelaminan. Nah, biasanya cincin tunangan merupakan refleksi akan janji
seumur hidup. Oleh karena itu, pastikan Anda membeli cincin yang tepat.
Anda dapat mengetahui pilihan yang disukai pasangan pada saat
berjalan-jalan di pusat perbelanjaan bersamanya atau saat sedang
ngobrol santai dengannya. Bisa saja, kan, Anda pura-pura bertanya,
?Kamu sukanya cincin model apa, sih?" Kebanyakan calon pengantin
wanita akan senang bila pada waktu lamaran diberikan cincin tunangan,
tetapi sebagian lagi sangat pemilih dan lebih suka dilibatkan saat
memilih/membeli cincin tersebut.
4. Ide lamaran
Ini juga tak kalah menantang. Banyak cara untuk menyampaikan lamaran.
Bahkan si romatis akan mengungkapkan ajakan menikah sambil bersimpuh di
lutut sang kekasih seperti yang kerap kita lihat di film-film atau
novel percintaan. Bagaimana dengan Anda? Anda dapat meminta saran dari
teman, mencari di internet, atau bahkan menciptakan gaya dan cara yang
unik.
5. Bicarakan Dengan Orang Tuanya
Sudah merupakan tradisi dan "kewajiban" untuk meminta izin dari orang
tua wanita. Oleh sebab itu, sang pria harus bertemu dengan calon
mertuanya dan meminta izin untuk dapat menikahi putri mereka.
6. Pilih Tempat Yang Agak Pribadi
Cari tempat yang romantis yang Anda sukai, tempat yang akan menjadi
tempat kenangan bagi Anda berdua. Bisa saja di ruang duduk di rumahnya
atau mengajaknya pergi ke suatu tempat. Tapi jangan lakukan di
supermarket! Ciptakan suatu saat yang tidak akan terlupakan baik bagi
dia maupun Anda.
7. Ungkapkan Alasan
Katakan dengan jujur, mengapa Anda ingin menikahinya. Jangan hanya
mengucapkan, "Aku cinta kamu." Jelaskan, kenapa Anda memilihnya sebagai
calon pendamping hidup dan kemukakan pula apa arti pernikahan bagi Anda
serta apa yang Anda harapkan dari sebuah pernikahan beserta masa
depannya. Misalnya dengan mengatakan "Hidup saya berubah sesudah saya
bertemu dengan kamu. Kamu membuat hidup saya lebih ceria, lebih stabil,
dan termotivasi. Saya tidak bisa membayangkan bagaimana hidup saya
tanpa kamu di sisi saya. Maukah kamu menikah dengan saya?" Dijamin, si
dia akan menerima lamaran Anda dengan tangan terbuka!
8. Umumkan kabar gembira
Beritahukan keluarga dan teman-teman dekat bahwa Anda telah
bertunangan.

YANG TAK BOLEH DILAKUKAN
* Jangan Lakukan Di Depan Umum
Bila akan menyatakan cinta dan memintanya untuk menikah dengan Anda,
kebanyakan wanita lebih menyukai bila Anda melakukannya dengan cara
romantis dan mengesankan. Misalnya hanya berdua dengan dia, tidak di
depan umum. Lagipula, Anda mempunyai banyak waktu untuk mengumumkan
pertunangan Anda pada teman dan kerabat, setelah si dia menerima ajakan
menikah yang Anda tawarkan.
* Jangan Sembunyikan Cincin Di Makanan
Mungkin niat awalnya ingin membuat kejutan dengan menyembunyikan cincin
tunangan di dalam makanan. Sebaiknya coret ide ini dari benak Anda
karena pada kenyataannya, suasana romantis yang tadinya ingin Anda
ciptakan dapat berakhir di rumah sakit.
* Jangan Lakukan Di Tempat Olah Raga
Tempat olah raga merupakan tempat yang ramai dan agak "semrawut".
Walaupun kekasih Anda olahragawati yang dikagumi banyak orang, arena
olah raga bukanlah tempat yang tepat untuk menyatakan cinta anda dan
memintanya untuk menikah dengan Anda. Suasana arena olahraga tidak
memungkinkan Anda dapat melakukannya dengan romantis dan tak bisa
menjadikan saat tersebut menjadi momen yang bersejarah dalam hidup
Anda.
* Jangan Lakukan Di Depan Keluarganya
Walaupun nantinya keluarga akan terlibat pada acara pertunangan dan
pesta pernikahan, Anda tidak perlu menyatakan cinta pada kekasih Anda
serta memintanya untuk menikah, di depan keluarga. Suasana romantis
yang Anda ciptakan dapat terganggu dengan hal-hal yang tidak Anda
bayangkan akan terjadi. Siapa tahu, si ayah sebetulnya masih kurang
sreg dengan Anda. Oleh sebab itu, buatlah saat ini menjadi saat yang
sangat pribadi, hanya Anda dan dia. Sesudah jawaban yang diberikannya
positif, Anda dapat mengumumkannya kepada seluruh keluarga.
* Jangan Dipersulit
Anda boleh saja kreatif, misalnya ingin menyewa limousine dan sambil
berkeliling kota dan di dalam mobil mewah itulah Anda ingin
menyampaikan ajakan menikah. Perlu diingat, yang terpenting adalah
lamarannya itu sendiri. Jadi, wujudkan kreativitas Anda sesuai dengan
dana yang dimiliki. Anda tidak perlu melakukannya secara berlebihan.
* Jangan Terlalu Cepat
Bila Anda baru saja memulai hubungan cinta dengannya, tidak perlu
terburu-buru ingin meminta dia untuk menikah dengan Anda. Tunggu sampai
hubungan mapan, stabil, karena semua itu merupakan dasar utama bagi
suatu pernikahan. Pastikan Anda berdua betul-betul saling mengenal
karakter satu sama lain.
* Jangan Berharap Jawaban Langsung "Ya"
Ingat, Anda meminta seseorang untuk menghabiskan sisa hidupnya dengan
Anda dan hal ini bukanlah merupakan suatu keputusan yang mudah. Jangan
karena Anda memintanya untuk bersedia dinikahi lalu Anda mengharapkan
dia siap untuk langsung memberikan jawaban, "Ya." Bila kekasih Anda
mengatakan, "Mungkin" berikan dia waktu untuk memikirkannya dan
memberikan keputusan yang penting tersebut pada Anda.

AGAR JADI KENANGAN ABADI
Salah satu kejadian terpenting dari kehidupan seseorang adalah pada
waktu melakukan pinangan/lamaran atau pada saat dipinang/dilamar.
Berikut ini bagaimana caranya agar pinangan tersebut tak dapat
dilupakan.
* Memilih orang yang tepat.
* Jatuh cinta.
* Cukup mengenal calon mertua Anda
* Cukup mengenal kekasih Anda sehingga Anda dapat menciptakan suatu
peristiwa yang tak terlupakan.
* Memutuskan kapan akan membeli cincin, sebelum atau sesudah melamar.
* Tetap konsisten dengan dana yang Anda miliki.
* Mempertimbangkan kapan akan melakukannya. Jangan melamar pada saat
kekasih Anda sedang stres.
* Pilihlah tempat yang mempunyai kenangan, misalnya tempat di mana Anda
berdua pertama kali bertemu dan saling menyatakan cinta.
* Ciptakan suasana romantis.
* Berikan kesan yang menyenangkan.
* Berikan kesan sederhana.
* Bila ingin memasangkan cincin pada waktu melamar, pastikan Anda
melakukannya dengan sempurna sehingga membuat pasangan Anda terpukau.
"MODAL" UTAMA
Sebelum menyampaikan ajakan untuk menikah, inilah hal penting yang
sudah harus Anda miliki.
* Rencana yang matang.
* Tempat.
* Cincin.
* Cinta, cinta, dan cinta ...

2009-05-26T12:17:00.000-07:00

Missing Her
Huff....

Q kangen banget ma mamaQ...
Kangen masakan bliau..
kangen belaian beliau ketika Q gy nangis..
Ya Allah..
ampuni smua dosa beliau..

Privacy Policy

2001-01-11T19:21:00.000-08:00

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